By Nathaniel Parry: Nathaniel is author of Samuel Adams and the Vagabond Henry Tufts: Virtue Meets Vice in the Revolutionary Era, recently published by McFarland Books.
In recent years, the term “patriarchy” has been rather liberally applied as a description of contemporary society, understood loosely as a system in which men generally enjoy more wealth and influence than women. Feminists who advocate for a more equitable sharing of power between the two genders tend to criticize the United States, with its male-dominated governmental and corporate structures, as a patriarchal society, but in a strict sense, the concept does not really apply to our modern-day culture. Historically, the term “patriarchy” has been used more precisely to describe societies in which laws and customs establish and maintain male authority in families, workplaces, and governance, a system marked by the supremacy of men and the legal dependence of wives and children. This system once existed in America, but – thanks largely to the American Revolution – no longer does.
As we celebrate Women’s History Month, it is worth taking a moment to consider the historical context of patriarchy and to appreciate the gains and successes to achieve a society in which women and girls are not constrained by oppressive laws and customs, where they are free to learn, work, own property and thrive as fully enfranchised citizens. This year’s celebration of women holds additional significance, because it falls just a month before the 250th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which kicked off the Revolutionary War and ultimately led not only to America’s independence, but substantial progress in gender relations. The widespread change in thinking that the American Revolution unleashed helped to undermine actual patriarchy and establish a more just and egalitarian society.
Considered before the revolution as completely dependent on their husbands or fathers, women were not allowed to enter into contracts or exercise legal rights. With documents referring to them as “wife of” or “daughter of” some male, they could not sue or be sued, make contracts or buy and sell property,[1] much less expect to have equal opportunity in educational institutions or professional careers. In keeping with the patriarchal view that the center of the woman’s world should properly be considered the home rather than the public sphere, formal and informal education offered to girls and young women was limited to preparing them for their roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers. They had few opportunities for higher learning, which was considered beyond their mental capacity and unnecessary since they had few prospects for professional employment besides school teaching.[2]
During the revolutionary era, however, the commitment and contribution of women to the patriot cause won them widespread respect from men, and transformed the general perception of what a woman should be. Abigail Adams spoke for many when she wrote to her husband John while he was serving at the Continental Congress in 1776, urging him to “Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors.” She warned the future president that if “perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies we are determined to foment a Rebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation.”[3]
While Abigail was famous for being John’s most trusted confidant throughout the revolutionary era, with the couple exchanging more than 1,000 letters, the relationship was not particularly unique. John’s cousin Samuel Adams, in fact, also heavily relied on the counsel of his wife Betsy, a well-read woman who could “converse upon any subject and give a solid and sensible opinion on most,” a relative recalled. [4] Adams often solicited her views and also relied on her to relay messages to his patriot associates. Indeed, many women actively engaged in the debates that drove the movement for independence, often in the confines of the home or in letters with their husbands, but sometimes also more publicly. Women published plays and poems proclaiming their patriotic sentiments, and a good number took to the streets during riots in the lead-up to the revolution.
During the war, women supported the cause by managing farms and businesses and otherwise assuming the burdens of absent husbands. In addition, they went door to door in cities across the colonies collecting money for the Continental Army,[5] and many worked as “camp followers” who played a critical role in the daily functions of the revolutionary cause, marching with the troops and serving as seamstresses, nurses, and cooks at their camps. There were thousands of women who served in this function, many of whom were widows, runaway servants, or the destitute. A British intelligence report estimated in 1778 that of the 20,000 rebels who mustered at White Plains, “near the half” were comprised of “Women and Waggoners.”[6] Farther away from the battlefield, there were also groups of women who strongarmed Tories or shopkeepers who hoarded scarce supplies.[7]
Some brave women even directly participated in combat. During the Battle of Fort Washington, for instance, on November 16, 1776, husband and wife John and Margaret Corbin of Virginia both participated in the fighting on the patriot side. When John was killed, Margaret took over his cannon, loading and firing the gun several times until she too was badly wounded. She survived the battle, but lost the use of her left arm.[8]
Having served the revolution in these vital functions, following independence many women sought a more expansive role for themselves, and men who had welcomed their support for the war effort continued to seek their guidance and help. The “ideal” woman was no longer just a submissive homemaker who lived to obey her husband, but a competent conversationalist who could engage with men in serious discussions on complex political and social issues. There was a widespread recognition, however, that women’s general lack of knowledge had left them ill-prepared for their new roles, and that they would have to be suitably educated if they were to live up to such high expectations.
A watershed moment was the publication of the essay “On the Equality of the Sexes” by Judith Sargent Murray in 1790. Originally published in The Massachusetts Magazine, Murray’s essay argued for improved educational opportunities for women, insisting that the success of the new nation required intelligent and virtuous citizens – both men and women. Since the education of children largely rested with mothers, Murray pointed out, women should be properly educated in order to raise virtuous republican citizens. She challenged pseudoscientific notions that the female brain was somehow inferior, arguing that women were not held back by biological limitations but by lack of access to schooling.[9] The widely read essay helped lay the foundation for the figure of the “Republican Mother” in the new republic.[10] According to this concept, women needed to be educated so they could raise the kind of informed and virtuous citizens that were needed for the success of the new republic.
With many Americans coming to agree with this view, schools and academies sprang up throughout the newly independent United States that began accepting female students.[11] Institutions like the Young Ladies’ Academy of Philadelphia were founded to provide formal education to women, and the curriculum for girls was expanded to include not just reading, writing, and religion, but also history, mathematics, and philosophy.
Women’s increased access to education had instant effects, with literacy rising rapidly throughout the country. Between 1784 and 1860, more than 100 periodicals geared toward women appeared, and in the same time frame, white women achieved parity in literacy with men.[12] With more girls learning to read and write, their participation in civic discussions and social reform movements like abolitionism, temperance, and women’s rights exponentially increased. Women also started pushing back on more subtle forms of domination by their male counterparts, rejecting language in marriage vows, for example, that compelled them to “obey” their husbands. A greater awareness would take hold of women’s oppression and under growing pressure for equality, ever greater parity would eventually prevail between the two genders, making the collapse of patriarchy one of the revolution’s most enduring achievements.
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[1] Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution, Vintage Books, 1993, p. 49
[2] Wood, Betty. “The Impact of the Revolution on the Role, Status, and Experience of Women”. A Companion to the American Revolution, edited by Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. Blackwell, 2000, p. 421
[3] “Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March 1776,” Founders Online, National Archives, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-01-02-0241.
[4] Schiff, Stacy. The Revolutionary: Samuel Adams. Little, Brown, 2022, p. 75
[5] Skemp, Sheila L. “Women and Politics in the Era of the American Revolution.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. 09. Oxford University Press. Accessed April 27, 2023, https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-216
[6] Mayer, Holly A. Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community During the American Revolution. University of South Carolina Press, 1999, p. 1
[7] Raphael, Ray. “Marblehead Woman”. May 7, 2014. Journal of the American Revolution. https://allthingsliberty.com/2014/05/marblehead-woman/ Accessed May 26, 2023
[8] Wike, Sudie Doggett. Women in the American Revolution. McFarland & Co., 2018, p. 59
[9] Murray, Judith Sargent. Selected Writings of Judith Sargent Murray. Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 3-15
[10] Kerber, Linda. “The Republican Mother: Women and the Enlightenment – An American Perspective”. American Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 2, summer 1976, pp. 187-205
[11] Wood, Betty. “The Impact of the Revolution on the Role, Status, and Experience of Women”. A Companion to the American Revolution, edited by Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. Blackwell, 2000, p. 426
[12] Zagarri, Rosemarie. “The Rights of Man and Woman in Post-Revolutionary America”. The William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 55, No. 2 April 1998, pp. 203-230