General John Sullivan of New Hampshire commanded troops in most of the American Revolution’s major battles. An ardent loyalist turned patriot; he was a member of the First New Hampshire Provincial Congress. He was voted to represent his state at the First and Second Continental Congress where he was commissioned as a Brigadier General, even though having no military experience outside heading the local militia. He would command and oversee troops in Canada, throughout the New York City Campaign, and at Washington’s Crossing, where he led a division at Trenton and Princeton. So too, his division would be in the thick of the fight at Brandywine and Germantown, followed up with long winter nights at Valley Forge. Later, he would lead his own detached armies during the assault on the British at Newport, Rhode Island, and the expedition against the Iroquois Nation.
No other officer of rank in the whole army has so often conceived himself neglected, slighted and ill-treated as you have done, and none I am sure has had less cause than yourself to entertain such ideas.
General Washington in a Letter to General Sullivan
Sullivan commanded Continental and militia troops for four years until the end of 1779 whereas worn out and ill, he resigned and went home. But he did not remain there long. He was claimed a hero and was sent back to the Continental Congress, serving until 1781. After the war, Sullivan continued to attend the public needs as activist to ratify the Constitution, governor for New Hampshire, and sat on the Federal Court.
Vain, ambitious, hot-headed and a man of honor; he had a knack for knowing who to complement, but so too, rubbing colleagues and politicians the wrong way; a combination that had its benefits, but more often than not, nourished enemies, especially in Congress. Washington disliked him and the citizens of his own town where he practiced law, Durham, had despised him. French admiral d’Estaing spoke of Sullivan, “…three years ago [Sullivan] was a lawyer, and who certainly must have been an uncomfortable man for his clients.” Though never outstanding in battle, his consistency and dedication to the patriot cause was a necessary foundation upon which Washington and others could rely on during the rebellion’s darkest days.
Early Life
John Sullivan (February 17, 1740 – January 23, 1795) was born in Somersworth, New Hampshire, fourteen miles northwest of coastal Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The third son of Irish redemptioner immigrants from Bera Peninsula in County Cork, Ireland, Margery Browne (1714-1801) and father, John Owen (1692-1796), who was the local schoolmaster. As such, John received a good education. When of age, he read law with Samuel Livermore.
He had four siblings; oldest Owen (some sources claim Benjamin) served in the Royal Navy and was lost at sea in 1759, Daniel (some articles mistakenly give David) had served as a captain – was kidnapped by a landing party from the HMS Allegiance on February 14, 1781 and according to his tombstone – was held as prisoner on the infamous prison ship Jersey and upon exchange he died from disease while in route home, James who became governor of Massachusetts, and Mary, who lived the longest dying in 1827 at age 75.
John married Lydia Remick Worster (1738-1820) of Kittery, now Maine, in 1760. In 1764 he bought three acres on the bank of the Oyster River in Durham, ten miles south of where he was born, and hung out his shingle, becoming the town’s first lawyer. The two would have six children; Margery, who died in infancy, Lydia, John, James, George (who would serve in the U.S. House of Representatives) and another child Margery who lived to age two.
As a lawyer, Sullivan made early enemies among his community in Durham. He used the courts regularly to enhance his wealth, suing neighbors and foreclosing on debts owed him. In June of 1766, a petition signed by 133 citizens of Durham was presented to the General Court, asking for relief from the “Oppressive Extortive Behavior of one Mr. John Sullivan.” A few well-placed friends and the case was dropped, in which Sullivan turned around and unsuccessfully sued the plaintiffs for libel. Over time, Sullivan did well enough for himself financially and changed his ethical tactics to smooth things over with his Durham neighbors. Sullivan had been an ardent supporter of Britain and became a favorite of Royal Governor John Wentworth. Because of his friendship with Wentworth, Sullivan was commissioned as a major in the militia. He had attained all the things he had worked for since his arrival in Durham: wealth, power, respect and leadership. Somewhere in early 70’s, he turned on his friend Royal Governor Wentworth and joined the ranks of dissidents, embracing the radical patriot cause.
Politician and Leadership Role in the Revolution
On July 21, 1774, the First Provincial Congress of New Hampshire met in Exeter. Sullivan attended representing Durham. He was elected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress that convened on September 5, 1774 and ended on October 26th. He returned to New Hampshire in November of that year and committed himself fully to the growing rebellion. An ambitious man with an eye on the military, he knew if he were to rise in the ranks of what would become the Continental Army, he would need experience leading men beyond a local militia. Fort William Mary in New Castle was raided on December 14, 1774, resulting in the first shots fired in the war. The party under John Langdon and Thomas Pickering absconded with barrels of much needed gunpowder; however, leaving the cannon. The next day, Sullivan organized 100 men who rowed over the frozen waters and withdrew fifteen four-pounder cannon and one nine-pounder, along with several small arms and other supplies.
It appeared that the raid on Fort William Mary paid off for both Langdon and Sullivan who were elected to represent New Hampshire in the Second Continental Congress that convened on May 10, 1775. Sullivan, as Washington had done, made his aspirations for a commission in the military known to his fellow delegates.. When Congress voted to take on the regulation of the newly appointed Continental Army and award commissions, Sullivan was handed a brigadier generalship. Like Washington, he would leave Congress to assume his command outside Boston.
Command the Retreat from Canada
American General Richard Montgomery led the invasion of Canada, traveling up Lake Champlain to capture Montreal. From there he would join General Benedict Arnold, weaving his way through the wilderness of Maine, to attack Quebec City. The December 31st Battle of Quebec resulted in an American defeat with Arnold wounded and the death of Montgomery. The Americans would remain in Canada besieging Quebec City; however, greatly reduced in strength with sickness and ending enlistments. General John Thomas would be given the reins of the Canadian invasion, but by early May of 1776, and after the British were reinforced, the Americans began a retreat along the St. Lawrence towards Montreal.
By the end of May, 1776, General Thomas lay dying from small pox and was replaced by General John Sullivan. Sullivan immediately marched north with reinforcements. By the time General Sullivan arrived in Canada on June 1st, almost all reinforcements had taken position from Montreal, along the St. Lawrence and Richelieu Rivers. For the first time since the Americans invaded Canada in 1775, Sullivan commanded a numerically formidable army; over 8,000 men in which all but 2,000 were fit for duty; the rest suffering from small pox. Though still outnumbering the British, Sullivan’s untrained forces faced professional regular troops led by experienced officers. After the loss at the Battle of Three Rivers, June 8, 1776, the Americans fell back to Montreal. Sullivan conducted a council of war and it was decided to withdraw fully from Canada. By the end of June, the Americans were hurried back down the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain by British forces. At Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga, they strengthened defenses against an expected British attack.
General Sullivan, after meticulously conducting an ordered retreat to Ticonderoga, left General Benedict Arnold to construct an American fleet of gunboats. Arnold would put his craft to good effect during the Battle of Valcour Island, October 11, 1776, which halted the British pursuit from Canada. Sullivan, though having brought off his army and most of its supplies in good order, received criticism from Congress for losing Canada. He showed up in New York City in August of 1776 to rejoin the American Army under Washington. On the 9th of August, Congress commissioned him a Major General.
Battle of Long Islan; Sullivan Given Temporary Command of Forces on Long Island and His Capture
At Long Island, General Nathanael Greene had been tasked with preparing the defenses at Brooklyn Heights. After the British began their invasion of New York City, Greene and others believed that Long Island would be the main target, however Washington was convinced any assault on the island would be a feint, and that the main attack would be against Manhattan Island, thereby splitting his army between Manhattan and Long Island. On August 20, 1776, General Greene fell ill and General Sullivan was given command of the troops on Long Island. The British began landing troops on Long Island on August 22nd, and soon outnumbered the Americans. Washington still believed that the main attack would be against Manhattan. After the British continued to land more troops, Washington sent over six battalions on August 24th and replaced Sullivan with General Israel Putnam. Putnam would soon make a shambles of the American defense with defeat soon following.
Putnam would remain at Brooklyn Heights along with 6,000 troops, the main American defense while General William Alexander Lord Stirling and General Sullivan would command the forward troops on Guan Heights. The heights at Guan blocked passage to Brooklyn Heights; however, there were three main passes that led directly to Brooklyn. West and south were the Gowanus Heights which was defended by Stirling and 500 men. The Flatbush Road was to the east and further still was the Bedford Road; these were guarded by Sullivan. Sullivan set 1,000 troops at Flatbush and 800 at Bedford. One other road existed, farthest to the east, the Jamaica Road. This was also to be posted by Sullivan. Unfortunately for the Americans, Sullivan sent five cavalrymen to guard this approach to Brooklyn and the American flank and rear. And this proved to be the road the British would focus their main attack.
On the night of August 26th, British General William Howe ordered General Henry Clinton and General Charles Cornwallis to advance along the Jamaica Road with 10,000 men. By morning they were to attack the American left and rear. To keep the Americans busy, pompous General James Grant, one of the most hated British officers of the army, along with 4,000 British and Hessian troops, would assault the American front in a feint, keeping the enemy busy while Clinton and Cornwallis rolled up the American line and catch them in a pincer movement. The result was a complete rout of American forces.
Sullivan and Sterling would each find themselves surrounded and forced to offer their swords in surrender. While a prisoner of war, Sullivan served as an intermediary between Gen. Howe’s brother, Adm. Richard Howe, and the Continental Congress, carrying the admiral’s peace proposals. The negotiations collapsed almost immediately and Sullivan was again criticized by Congress. John Adams called him a “decoy duck whom Lord Howe had sent among us to seduce us into a renunciation of our independence.” Sullivan would remain captive for three months until an exchanged for Brigadier Richard Prescott, captured previously when Montreal was taken. Americans got a lot of milage out of Prescott. He would be captured again in 1777 in Newport, Rhode Island and later exchanged for General Charles Lee. Sullivan would be returned to the American army in time for the Battle of Trenton.
Battle of Trenton and Sullivan Takes Important Bridge
On Christmas Day, December 25, 1776, Washington’s bedraggled army crossed the icy Delaware River and in the face of sleet and blowing snow, advanced all night to attack the British post at Trenton, New Jersey; guarded by 1,400 Hessians under Colonel Johann Rall. This main American attack of 2,400 men were split in two divisions to advance on Trenton along two roads. The eastern approach was under General Nathanael Greene, to which Washington accompanied. The western road, closer to the river, was commanded by General Sullivan. Sullivan was to attack the town from the south and Greene from the north. An important bridge that spanned the Assunpink Creek was to be secured by General James Ewing’s 700 militiamen ferrying across the Delaware River. Capture of this bridge would seal off the Hessians, taking away their escape route. Ewing’s militia would never span the river due to thick ice, leaving the Hessian escape route open.
As the weather worsened, Sullivan sent a courier to Washington’s column, informing him that his men’s powder was becoming wet (black powder needed to be dry to fire). Washington infamously sent back a message: “Tell General Sullivan to use the bayonet. I am resolved to take Trenton.” At 8 AM, Washington and Greene’s column attacked the town, driving in sentries in a house-to-house battle. Hessians guarding the River Road rushed to their companion’s aid, leaving the road unguarded. Sullivan’s column entered southern Trenton by the abandoned River Road and moved to block the only crossing over the Assunpink Creek to cut off the Hessian escape. As Washington’s men pressed into the town from the north, they drove the Hessians from the streets and homes into nearby fields.
Sullivan’s troops began to overwhelm these Hessians. Fellow New Hamshireman, Colonel John Stark, led a bayonet charge that broke the German resistance. The creek was still an avenue of escape for the Germans and Sullivan led a column of men to block it off. The main body of Hessians regrouped under Rall and made one last effort to regain the town. Rall was mortally injured and the Hessians retreated to an orchard where surrounded, they surrendered. The Knyphausen regiment tried to escape over the bridge. Finding it guarded by Sullivan’s men, they attempted to sweep them aside but failed; many swimming and wading across the creek to escape. Surrounded by the rest of Sullivan’s troops, they too surrendered. Many of the Knyphausen regiment who escaped to the south were captured by Sullivan’s troops; some 200 additional men, along with the regiment’s cannon and supplies. Sullivan would later, at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777, lead his division against the 40th and a detachment of the 55th Regiments at Princeton. While Washington’s main force drove back an attack by British Lt. Colonel Charles Mawhood, Sullivan’s men surrounded and forced the surrender of nearly 200 British regulars.
Winter Camp and Enemies Emerge
In an age where important men strutted about like roosters before a hen house, and when honor took president above all else, it was quite natural for inflated egos to clash. Promotions involving seniority in rank caused many officers to place self-worth before country, resulting in ascorbic relationships and even resignations. Fellow New Hampshireman Colonel John Stark, hero of Bunker Hill and proven military leader, would throw up his hands and go home to New Hampshire. This after promotions to brigadier were handed to less senior, deciding upon himself when and where he would serve the cause.
Sullivan spent the winter months of 1777 at Morristown, New Jersey, arguing with anyone who would listen. A grated ego resulted in disagreements with other officers, including Washington, that also found its way to Congress. Neither did Sullivan make many friends when spoke out against the neutrality of Quakers in the revolution; whereas second in command, Nathanael Greene was a quaker and Congress met in Philadelphia, the hotbed of Quaker influence. And of course, all this generated enemies that affected promotion, postings, and a general lack of confidence in one’s military abilities; something Sullivan would continually suffer throughout his career.
Washington first wrote of Sullivan that he was “…Zealously attach’d to the cause”. He also added that Sullivan had “a little tincture of vanity . . . an over desire of being popular, which now and then leads him into some embarrassments.” Later, after continually harassing his commanding officer and others over commands and promotions, Washington wrote to him saying, “No other officer of rank in the whole army has so often conceived himself neglected, slighted and ill-treated as you have done, and none I am sure has had less cause than yourself to entertain such ideas.”
Raid on Statin Island; a ‘Mishandled Affair’
August 22, 1777, Sullivan had taken it upon himself to command a raid against British forces on Statin Island. Sullivan had been in charge of eastern New Jersey forces and what became known as the Forage War; both sides clashing as they sent out detachments seeking food and supplies. General Howe sailed from New York City on July 23rd aboard a large fleet commanded by his brother, Admiral Richard Howe. Washington did not know their destination until British ships were spotted at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on August 21st. With Philadelphia now the target, he marched his army south, ordering Sullivan to join him at “all convenient speed.” Sullivan must have considered the wording gave him some leeway into his decision to stall long enough to Raid Statin Island.
With the main British army gone, there was a reduced force on Statin Island which had been a major British and German camp. Sullivan figured that a quick raid would garnish success in both captured troops and much needed supplies. His men could accomplish this goal rapidly, recross back to New Jersey, and Sullivan would then follow after Washington’s army. From intelligence on the number of enemy the Americans would encounter to planning and execution, Sullivan’s subordinates were in agreement that it was poorly conducted at best. Once on the island, the found the Loyalists putting up a stiffer fight than thought. As two regiments of British and one of Hessian troops approached, the boats to take Sullivan’s men back across to New Jersey failed to show. By the time Sullivan transported as many men as he could in the few boats they managed, he suffered multiple casualties with the capture of over 150 mainly Maryland Continental troops, including over 20 officers. Sullivan was court-martialed for having mishandled the affair, however a generous court exonerated him of all charges. He was able to rejoin Washington in time for Brandywine.
Battle of Brandywine Creek and Germantown
At both the Battle of Brandywine Creek, September 11, 1777, and Battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777, Sullivan’s performance as Division commander was not spectacular. Nor was it commendable. At Brandywine he commanded the right flank of the army. His men had been bivouacking when a surprise flanking attack routed them. Troops from General Greene’s division reinforced Sullivan’s men who were able to rally and leave the field in good order. At Germantown, Sullivan’s division initially routed the British light infantry. However fog, delays in concentrating on fruitless attacks against the Chew Mansion, and stumbling into friendly fire, gave the British time to rally and drive back the Americans.
Battle of Rhode Island
General Joseph Spencer had been posted to Rhode Island to organize an attack against the British occupation of Aquidneck Island and Newport. In May, 1778, after a year and half in which Spencer had not the manpower or supplies to oust the British, Washington ordered Sullivan to assume command. Like Spencer, Sullivan was to drive the British out of Newport. What Spencer did not have that Sullivan did, was a French Navy, including 4,000 French infantry at his disposal. By the first week of August, 1778, all was in order. The French fleet under Admiral Charles Henri Hector d’Estaing had arrived and on August 9th, was offloading their infantry. So too, Sullivan had ferried over 10,000 Continentals and Militiamen onto Aquidneck Island. All was as it should, until British sails were sighted.
Admiral d’Estaing immediately reloaded his infantry and sailed out to do battle against the British fleet from New York City. Mother nature stepped in and a whopping nor’easter ravaged both fleets. The British fleet limped back to New York and the French gave up the ghost, sailing to Boston to seek repairs. Bottom line, when the French left, so did the militia, leaving Sullivan facing over 6,000 British and Hessian professional troops in strong, nearly impregnable fortifications. After a fruitless siege and with word of further British reinforcements sailing up from New York, Sullivan was forced to retreat. To add insult to injury, the British sallied from their earthworks and attacked, giving the withdrawing Americans a black eye to see them off the island.
Sullivan wrote a scathing letter to Washington and Congress blasting Admiral d’Estaing’s decision to abandon the attack on Rhode Island as dishonorable to France. Washington and Lafayette tried to sooth the French admiral’s feathers for his and his government’s support was still of dire needs. D’Estaing took the criticism in stride, even offering to march his infantry overland to aid Sullivan at Rhode Island. But his mood towards Sullivan remained ascorbic quoting, “I offered to become a colonel of infantry, under the command of one who three years ago was a lawyer, and who certainly must have been an uncomfortable man for his clients.”
Scorch and Burn Campaign Annihilated the Iroquois
Over the next year, Sullivan remained with Washington’s army; the winter of 1778-1779 spent once more in the Watchung Mountains of northern New Jersey, this time at Middlebrook, between the first and second range of what was a natural barrier between the Americans and British in New York City. By spring 1779, Sullivan was selected to lead an expedition against the Iroquois Nation; most of the Confederation (known as the Longhouse confederation) had aligned with the British. The campaign was ordered by General Washington in response to the outcry by western settlers angered by the Iroquois (named Haudenosaunee) attacks on Cherry Valley (Nov. 25, 1777) Wyoming (July 3, 1778), and German Flatts (Sept. 17, 1778); all within the course of one year. Sullivan was given free reign to attack all settlements, burn and destroy all homes and food supplies, and drive the Iroquois from their lands as far west as he could. In this Sullivan would achieve far more success than he had on any battlefield.
From June to October, 1779, Sullivan lead a force of 4,000 Continental and Militias troops in retaliatory raids against the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, and Mohawk nations (the fifth nation of the confederation, Oneida, were aligned with the Americans) throughout the Mohawk Valley of what is now mostly western New York. These raids of destruction resulted in an American decisive victory between Sullivan’s forces and the Iroquois and their loyalist supporters at the Battle of Newtown, (near present day Elmira, NY) on August 29, 1779.
The expedition was largely successful, with more than 40 Iroquois villages and their stores of winter crops destroyed, breaking the power of the Iroquois in New York all the way to the Great Lakes. It vanquished the power of the Iroquois nation and opened up vast regions of wilderness for post-war settlement that included the Ohio Country south to Kentucky and west to the Great Lakes.
With this Sullivan’s success, came a terrible cost to Native Americans. Their ancestral homes were lost for good as well as the suffering both loss of life and the resulting disease and malnourishment from food supplies destroyed, was tremendous. More than 5,000 Iroquois refugees fled to the area surrounding the British Fort Niagara (modern-day towns of Youngstown and Lewiston, New York). Distraught and famished men, women, and children desperately sought supplies and protection from the British. John Butler (loyalist and head of Butler’s Rangers) reported in 1778 on the condition of the Iroquois: “The Indians in this part of the Country are so ill off for Provisions that many have nothing to subsist upon but the roots and greens they gather in the woods.”
At the expedition’s conclusion in October, Sullivan earned the thanks of Congress; however, after four years of service commanding divisions and armies in several major battles, Sullivan was worn out and tired. So too, often while campaigning against the Iroquois, the expedition had to pause and slow down due to Sullivan’s failing health. He attributed it to a ‘bilious disorder.’ In November of 1779, sick, broke, and at odds with Congress, Sullivan resigned his commission and returned home to Durham, New Hampshire.
Returns to the 2nd Continental Congress
Sullivan’s retirement was short lived. In New Hampshire he was a hero, and the state returned him as a delegate to Congress. Once back in Philadelphia, he raised his voice on such issues as New Hampshire’s land claims in Vermont, Revolutionary finances that were bankrupt, and peace with Britain. By early 1781, his finances low and in need of cash, Sullivan used his position to persuade the French minister and ambassador to the United States, Chevalier de la Luzerne, to loan him 68 guineas. It was a time when loans were indiscreetly made in exchange for favors and influence, often never expected to be paid back. When others in Congress learned of this exchange, Sullivan faced charges of bribery and being on the French government’s payroll. Embarrassed, tired of all the bickering, and still feeling the effects from four years of campaigning troops, Sullivan left Congress for good in August of 1781 and went home to Durham.
Active in Local Politics
Upon returning home, Sullivan’s main interest was reviving his finances. Still considered a hero, he resurrected his practice and resumed to be active in local politics. He would serve as the state’s attorney general from 1782 – 86 and as a member of the state legislature, was chosen speaker of the house. From 1786 – 87, he was New Hampshire’s President (same as governor). In 1789, he and John Langdon led the legislative campaign which resulted in New Hampshire becoming the 9th state to ratify the Constitution on June 21, 1788. In 1789, he was elected to a third and last term as governor and in the same year, President Washington appointed him as a federal judge for the district of New Hampshire, a position he would hold until his death.
Last Years
Sullivan’s last years were miserable. He once more delved into local litigation with neighbors, this time mainly over land feuds in Durham. He mishandled finances and went into debt while growing prematurely senile. Though Sullivan never resigned his federal judgeship, even though his health prevented him from sitting on the bench after May of 1792. He would spend the next three years in continual decline.
His daily ‘spirits’ intake irritated an ulcer while suffering from a progressive nervous disease. By 1795, near financial ruin and ‘broken,’ both physically and mentally, he was a mere shadow of his former strong, confident, argumentative self. Forsaken by all but his family and a few friends, he died on January 23, 1795, age 54. As author Steve Adams appropriately wrote, Sullivan was, “a man who found happiness only in action and peace only in death.”
John Sullivan was buried in the Sullivan Family Burial Ground (also known as Edgerly Cemetery) in Durham, Strafford County, New Hampshire. The cemetery is located behind the John Sullivan House (which became a private residence in 2008). It is just south of Durham on Newmarket Road/Rt. 108 after crossing a bridge over an inlet.
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Frost, John. Lives of the heroes of the American Revolution : Comprising the Lives of Washington and his Generals… 1847: Phillips & Sampson, Boston, MA.
“John Sullivan American Politician and Officer” Britannica Online.
Mintz, Max. Seeds of Empire: The American Revolutionary Conquest of the Iroquois. 1999: New York University Press, New York, NY.
Schenawolf, Harry. “Battle of Rhode Island.” March 2, 2023: Revolutionary War Journal.
Schenawolf, Harry. “Canada Lost: The American Retreat from Quebec January – June 1776.” September 20, 2018: Revolutionary War Journal.
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Stephens, Karl F. Neither the Charm Nor the Luck, Major General John Sullivan. 2009: Outskirts Press, Parker, CO.
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