James Madison Champion of Democracy and Dolley Madison, the True First Lady

If we advert to the nature of republican government, we shall find that the censorial power is in the people over the government, and not in the government over the people. James Madison, 1793

According to University of Virginia Professor John Stagg, James Madison, our fourth president, was “from the early days of the American Revolution through the struggles of the Constitutional Convention and the challenges of the Embargo Act and the War of 1812, involved in the most pressing issues confronting the new nation.” He was active in designing “the form and nature of the national government. He set forth the rights of citizens, religious freedoms, trade and economic policy, and establishing America’s place in the community of nations.”[1]  Though he supported a strong government, Madison was weary of an autocrat’s potential use of mob-rule. He realized how easily the foibles and ambitions of human nature could wrest power from the people to satiate self-serving greed. It is why he stressed the need for checks and balances in governing documents; as a shield against absolutism. On January 6, 2021, the United States lived through Madison’s worst nightmare. Legally sworn to protect the Constitution, President Trump, in an attempt to overturn a free and fair election to install himself as a despot, unleashed a mob to tear down the very democratic barriers Madison helped erect against tyranny.

James Madison was the father of our Constitution. Not just because he penned its first draft. He was the driving force to convince his fellow founders to convene a Constitution Convention. After the document was signed, he worked tirelessly for the next two years co-writing the Federalist Papers along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to promote its states’ ratification. He became the champion of the people and for the people. For that he left his mark for countless millions have and will be forever grateful.

Yet Madison was not a champion of all humanity. Though he condemned slavery, like Jefferson and Washington, so too he could never sever himself from its corruption. Instead, he continued to manage his large Virginia plantation by enslaving more than one hundred men and women. After his presidency, he sought other means to remedy the conflicts of human bondage by sending freed slaves to Africa.  It seemed that Madison was no longer convinced that emancipation was superior to slavery. In 1836, the last year of his life, he ended a letter to the editor of the Farmers’ Register with this conclusion: “It is most obvious, they [slaves] themselves are infinitely worsted by the exchange from slavery to liberty—if, indeed, their condition deserves that name.”

Early Life

James Madison was born on March 16 (March 5th old style dating)^[2] 1751, at Bella Grove Plantation, in Port Conway, Virginia to James and Nelly Conway Madison.  He was to grow up in Orange County, Virginia in view of the blue ridge mountains. He was the oldest of twelve children, seven (some accounts claim eight) of whom lived to adulthood.  His father, James Madison Sr., (1723-1801) became a successful planter, eventually owning dozens of slaves to manage his three-thousand-acre farm. An influential figure in county affairs, Madison senior acquired his wealth through an inheritance and by marriage to Nelly Conway (1731-1829), the daughter of Francis Conway, rich tobacco merchant for whom Port Conway was named.

James Jr. was a sickly child who rarely strayed far from his mother’s side. His most vivid childhood memories were of his fears of Indian attacks during the French and Indian War (1754-1763) and of the day his family moved from their little farmhouse at Mt. Pleasant, to a large plantation mansion his father called Montpelier. It is believed these events may have contributed to an affliction to which Madison suffered. Psychosomatic, or stress-induced seizures plagued him on and off throughout his youth.[3] Scholars later diagnosed his infliction to have been hysteron-epilepsy which are hysterical seizures that resemble epilepsy. These fits occur in the presence of others and in most cases, the victim rarely hurts themselves.  James was adored by his younger siblings; however, his favorite was probably his youngest sister, Frances Taylor Madison (Fanny), with whom he enjoyed playing chess. Their relationship was overshadowed years later by a dispute between Fanny’s husband, Dr. Robert Rose, and other Madison family members over the terms of their father’s will.

Education

James’ mother Nelly is believed to have taught him to read, however the family’s wealth provided many opportunities for the frail youth’s education.  His father never received a formal education and looked to James to cement the family’s rise in status. At age eleven, young Madison attended Donald Robertson’s school in Drysdale Parrish in upper King and Queen County[4], near present day Newtown, Virginia. It was a wood over brick frame residence that became a prestigious school under the Scottish immigrant’s direction, attended by children who would become prominent leaders during and after the American Revolution.  Madison, in his eighties and at the end of his life wrote that “all that I have been in life I owe largely to that man.”[5]  Often Scottish-born or trained clergymen would privately school Madison at his home in Montpelier in the classics, natural philosophy (sciences), foreign languages, and moral philosophy (ethics and social justice/rights). James devoured books and by the time he entered university, he had mastered Greek and Latin.

In 1769, Madison enrolled in the College of New Jersey, now known as Princeton University. He graduated in 1771 and, longing for further education, became the College of New Jersey’s first graduate student. He remained another year under the tutorage of the college’s Scottish President, the renowned Presbyterian minister, John Witherspoon[6] (tenure 1768 until his death in 1794).  Witherspoon strongly supported American liberty. He also championed more conservative ideals such as order and national unity. There is no doubt that Witherspoon was a major factor during Madison’s formative years. His influence would appear years later as Madison wrote the nation’s Constitution and introduced a Bill of Rights. So too, Madison’s later thoughts on slavery, tolerating a slave society within a government that proclaimed liberty as its foundation, may have been impacted by Witherspoon. Though the learned president of the College of New Jersey advocated revolutionary ideas of liberty and tutored freed slaves at Princeton, he owned slaves and lectured against the abolition of slavery. Upon completion of his studies in New Jersey, Madison returned to Montpelier and began his career in government.

American Revolution

After completing graduate studies, Madison returned home to Montpelier. Though having disliked lectures in law as a boy, he studied to be a lawyer.  Again, Witherspoon, a passionate patriot, must have finely tuned his prodigy for James quickly became involved in local Whig politics. With the advent of possible war, his county began to recruit militia members. Madison learned to fire a musket but, because of poor health, did not enlist in the Orange County Militia. Instead, in December of 1774, he was appointed to the county’s Committee of Safety[7] which carried out military aspects of government in the advent of hostilities. For the next year, Madison became heavily involved in organizing and building up the strength of the county militia. Orange County minutemen would be part of the Culpeper Minutemen who would respond to the Battle of Great Bridge, December 9, 1775, that eventually saw the removal of Virginia’s Royal Governor, Lord Dunmore.

Fifth Virginia Convention

From Committee of Safety, Madison became involved in the Virginia legislature. He was selected to the Fifth Virginia Convention, May 6 – July 5, 1776.  These conventions began with the first Virginia Convention, August 1 – 6, 1774 which occurred after the House of Burgesses convened. The second through fourth conventions dealt with Royal Governor Lord Dunmore’s departure from Virginia. The fifth convention to which Madison joined was the last that led to a state constitution. The delegates were able to draft George Mason’s Declaration of Rights, a precursor to the United States Bill of Rights, adopted on June 12^th, and a Constitution of Virginia, adopted on June 29^th. Patrick Henry would be inaugurated on June 29, 1776 as the first governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia.

Madison brought his classical education and passion to the convention. He was instrumental in influencing the assembly’s policy of religious tolerance (championed by Patrick Henry)[8] to one of absolute religious freedom – the first such separation of church and state. Madison, along with Thomas Jefferson, also shepherded the Enlightenment ideals of the rights of the people; present in Mason’s Declaration of Rights and evidence of Madison’s two most influential teachers, Robertson and Witherspoon. The Virginia State Constitution was the first in the nation and set the bar for nearly every state constitution to follow. However, Madison could not follow up his work in the convention; losing in elections to become a delegate for the new state assembly.

Virginia Council of State

After his loss to the state legislature, Madison’s political career was far from over.  He won an appointment to the Virginia Council of State and began serving on January 14, 1778.  Eight members formed this powerful government body (drafted within the Vermont State Constitution) that directed state affairs during the Revolutionary War, including all financing and recruiting for the war effort.  In that capacity, Madison cemented his relationship with Thomas Jefferson, who served as governor of Virginia from June 2, 1779 until June 3, 1781. From that time until Jefferson’s death in 1826, Madison functioned as Jefferson’s closest adviser and personal friend. In this capacity, Madison also became a strong supporter of the American-French alliance. Being one of the few legislators who spoke fluent French, James solely handling much of the council’s correspondence with that nation. His work during this time also underpinned his relationships with France that would be nourished throughout his entire political career. It was shortly after December 14^th, 1779, that the state legislature, under Governor Jefferson’s advice and influence, that Madison was chosen to go to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia; arriving in March, 1780 to serve three years as one of the delegates from Virginia.

Continental Congress

At age twenty-nine, Madison became the youngest member of the Continental Congress. Within a year, the small, soft-spoken, shy young man had emerged as a respected leader of the body.  We tend to think that America’s darkest moments were around the time of Valley Forge – winter of 1777 to 1778.  But by 1780, most Americans were tired of the war. The economy, that was among the strongest in the world at the start of the Revolution, was in near shambles. Recruitment was low. Congress was running out of money. The troops hadn’t been paid in months. Mutiny and near starvation of the soldiers was common place. Infighting among military leaders was at its worst. Meanwhile, British victories in the south began to gobble up colonies and territory as more and more loyalists joined England’s ranks.

The Second Continental Congress ended on March 1, 1781. That same day the body immediately became the Congress of Confederation. Articles of Confederation were approved by Congress on November 15, 1777 signaling the new nation as The United States of America. After all thirteen states ratified the Articles, it became the rule of law after March 1^st. It was a tribute to Madison’s hard work and understanding of the issues which helped continue the struggle. No one ever came to a meeting more prepared than Madison. For three years, he argued vigorously for legislation to strengthen the loose confederacy of former colonies, contending that military victory required vesting power in a strong central government. Most of his appeals were beaten down by independent-minded delegates who feared a primary government and the emergence of a monarchical authority after the war.[9]  The Treaty of Paris was approved by Congress on April 15, 1783 and signed on September 3, 1783.  With the war having wound down and the treaty approved, many delegates left Philadelphia for home, returning to Congress to ratified the treaty on January 14, 1784 at Annapolis, Maryland.  Madison left for Montpelier and would not return to Philadelphia until the Constitution Convention of 1787.

First Love

When Madison became a delegate for the Continental Congress and arrived in Philadelphia in 1780, he found lodging at Mary House’s upscale boardinghouse[10] on fifth and Market Street, a block from the Pennsylvania State House. Housing remained at a premium throughout the Revolution so Madison remained there the entire three years he served his first term in Congress.  During the winter and spring of 1783, James met and fell in love with Catherine “Kitty” Floyd, the beautiful fifteen-year-old daughter of the Continental Congress delegate from New York, William Floyd. He and his family also lived at the boardinghouse. Thirty-two years old at the time, Madison was extraordinarily shy in social situations, particularly ones in which attractive women were involved. At five feet three and prematurely balding, he was not considered a physical ‘catch’.[11]

Madison’s good colleague Thomas Jefferson had also boarded at Mary House’s establishment in the winter of 1783 and had seen the mutual attraction between Kitty Floyd and his friend. Playing the matchmaker while on his way back to Monticello in April of 1783, Jefferson wrote Madison a letter urging him to propose marriage. The shy politician took his advice. Kitty accepted and the two exchanged miniature portraits of themselves by Philadelphia artist Charles Wilson Peale. On April 29, 1783, William Floyd, along with his sixteen-year-old daughter, left for home on Long Island, first time is seven years. Madison accompanied them to Brunswick, New Jersey, and said goodbye to his fiancé until he could wrap up business in Philadelphia.[12]  By late July, Madison knew something was wrong.  On August 11, 1783, he wrote to his good friend Jefferson that Kitty had fallen in love with someone else – a nineteen-year-old medical student at the College of Philadelphia named William Clarkson. She would later married Clarkson.[13]  It seemed that Madison never fully got over the love for Kitty and her rejection. Reportedly, when he was nearly eighty, he came across two letters he had written about Kitty to Jefferson in 1783. Rereading the letters, he inked out all references to Kitty.[14]

After the American Revolution

His work done in Philadelphia; Madison returned to Virginia in early 1784. Still trying to figure what career to pursue, he resumed his studies in law while delving in land speculation; an endeavor he was not particularly good at.  After a break touring New York State with Marquis de Lafayette, he once again settled at his parent’s estate at Montpelier.[15]  He tried his hand at local government and this time won election to the Virginia House of Delegates. Along with Jefferson, they persuading his home state to cede its western lands to the Continental Congress; an area that extended to the Mississippi River. This undermined numerous land-grabbing schemes by hordes of greedy speculators.  So too he joined with Washington (now a private citizen living at Mt. Vernon) and the general’s plan for Virginia and Maryland to regulate use of all waterways. With no strong central government, states were at odds with each other over many issues from tariffs to some coining their own money. The Mt. Vernon Plan, as it was known (having met at Mt. Vernon), was ratified on December 30, 1785.  This agreement between states was one of the first steps towards a national Constitution.

Madison was soon battling his old nemesis, Patrick Henry who was attempting to tax citizens in support of the Christian religion. Henry, though a strong supporter of independence, nevertheless believed in state support of religion. Madison favored a complete separation of church and state. Among the proposed laws that fell victim to James’ relentless pressure were those designed to establish religious tests for public office. Again, Madison’s success in this matter nourished Henry’s seeds of resentment which would later haunt him.[16]

Articles of Confederation

Always a proponent of strong government, Madison became intent on convincing others that a new federal governing document was needed. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first written constitution of the United States. Drafted in 1777, and stemming from wartime urgency, its progress was slowed by fears of central authority and extensive land claims by states. It was not ratified until March 1, 1781, when the Second Continental Congress became the Congress of Confederation. Under these articles, the states remained sovereign and independent, with Congress serving as the last resort on appeal of disputes. Significantly, The Articles of Confederation named the new nation “The United States of America.” Congress was given the authority to make treaties and alliances, maintain armed forces and coin money. However, the central government lacked the ability to levy taxes and regulate commerce. Issues that many, most particularly Madison, through his written articles and countless meetings, convinced leaders that they needed to seek another solution to government by establishing stronger federal laws in a Constitutional Convention.

Constitutional Convention

Convinced that weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation rendered the new Republic subject to foreign attack and domestic turmoil, Madison persuaded the states’ rights advocate John Taylor[17] to call for a meeting in Annapolis, Maryland. There, delegates would address problems of commerce among the states. The poorly attended assembly achieved one important goal. They issued a call for a national convention “to render the constitution of the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union.”  States agreed and Madison led the Virginia delegation to the Philadelphia meeting, which began on May 14, 1787. Prior to the convention, James led the cry for General George Washington to act as its chair. When Washington accepted, the body achieved the moral authority it needed to draft a new constitution for the nation.[18]

Madison was clearly the preeminent figure at the convention. When he and the other fifty-six delegates met, many intended to just amend the Articles of Confederation. Madison, along with other leaders present, particularly Alexander Hamilton from New York, would have none of it. They were there to sign into law a new constitution. Some of the delegates favored an authoritarian central government. Others preferred retention of state sovereignty.  Most were content to occupy positions in the middle of the two extremes. Madison was rarely absent during the meetings, many which were held secretly behind closed doors. The Virginia Plan, that Madison helped developed eleven years earlier, was introduced by delegate Edmund Randolph, who was then governor of Virginia. This plan was in large part the basis of the Constitution. Its major features included a bicameral national legislature with the lower house directly elected by the people, an executive chosen by the legislature, and an independent judiciary that included a Supreme Court.[19]

Madison, like many of his colleagues, was a child of the ‘classics’ which influenced the many discussions over the formation of the three pillars of democracy: Legislature, Executive, and Judicial with its checks and balances against any one branch obtaining too much power.  Despite his poor speaking capabilities, he took the floor more than 150 times, third only after Gouverneur Morris and James Wilson. Madison was also a member of numerous committees, the most important of which were those on postponed matters and style. His journal of the convention is the best single record of the event.^[20]

A heated debate over the legislative branch was resolved by what has been called the ‘Great’ or ‘Connecticut Compromise’[21] which was adopted on July 16, 1787 by a one vote margin. By September 1787, Madison had emerged from the Constitutional Convention as the most impressive and persuasive voice in favor of a new constitution, eventually earning the revered title “Father of the Constitution.”[22] The signing of the United States Constitution occurred on September 17, 1787, at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Thirty-nine delegates representing twelve states (all but Rhode Island, which declined to send delegates), endorsed the new document. It now had to go to the thirteen states for ratification; nine of which had to sign on before it became the law of the land.

Federalist Papers – Selling the New Constitution

Once the document was presented to the states for ratification, Madison, along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, published a series of newspaper essays that became known collectively as the Federalist Papers. Writing under the pseudonym “Publius,” Madison authored twenty-nine of the eighty-five essays. He argued the case for a strong central government subject to an extensive system of checks and balances wherein “ambition” would be counteracted by competing ambition. This collection of documents, especially Madison’s essay Numbers 10 and 51, are classic statements on republican government and stand as a significant early interpretation of the meaning and intent of the U.S. Constitution.[23]

On June 21, 1788, the Constitution became the official framework of the government of the United States when New Hampshire became the ninth of thirteen states to ratify. Delaware was the first to ratify on December 7, 1787, followed by Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut. Some states voiced opposition to the Constitution on the grounds that it did not provide protection for rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and press. However, the terms of the Massachusetts Compromise[24], reached in February 1788, stipulated that amendments to that effect—what became the Bill of Rights—would be immediately proposed when Congress resumed. The constitution was subsequently ratified by Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and, finally, New Hampshire.

Elected to the House of Representatives

After two years of tirelessly helping to write and ratify the new Constitution, Madison hoped that he would be chosen to represent Virginia in the new Senate that had been agreed upon in the Great or Connecticut Compromise. To some, old grudges never die and Patrick Henry loomed his ugly head to successfully keep Madison from gaining a senate seat: the two going to Richard ‘Lighthorse Harry’ Lee and William Grayson. In 1789, Madison ran against James Monroe to represent his district in the House of Representatives winning the seat 57.4 percent of the vote to Monroe’s 42.6 percent. Both would eventually serve as President of the United States. The first session of the House of Representatives came to order in Federal Hall, New York City, then the nation’s capital, on March 4, 1789, with only thirteen members present. The requisite quorum (thirty members out of fifty-nine) was not present until April 1, 1789.  North Carolina and Rhode Island had not ratify the Constitution until after the first session started so their representatives arrived much later.

Bill of Rights.  Madison Becomes Early Leader in the House

For the next several years, Madison served as Washington’s chief supporter in the House, working tirelessly on behalf of the President’s policies and politics. In kind Washington, in 1794, offered Madison a mission to France and the post of Secretary of State, both which Madison turned down.  Most importantly, Madison introduced and guided passage the Bill of Rights. He presented seventeen amendments to the Constitution on June 8, 1789, born from the Massachusetts Compromise. Congress adopted twelve on September 25, 1789, to send to the states for ratification. Known as the Bill of Rights, ten of the twelve were ratified on December 15, 1791 (delayed until Rhode Island ratified the Constitution). These amendments protected civil liberties and augmented the checks and balances within the Constitution. In achieving the ratification of the Bill of Rights, Madison fulfilled his promise to Jefferson, who had supported the Constitution with the understanding that Madison would secure constitutional protections for various fundamental human rights—religious liberty, freedom of speech, and due process, among others—against unreasonable, unsupported, or impulsive governmental authority.[25]

Two Parties Emerge

Madison uses his influence to compromise for location of the nation’s capital.  Even as the first Congress met in 1790, both north and south were seeking the U.S. capital within their jurisdiction. At the time these conversations were heating up, New York City was the hub of the new nation’s business. Two sides or parties were beginning to emerge, those who basically supported greater relations with England (known as the Federalists) and those who preferred France (anti-federalists, later labeled Jeffersonians). John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, from Boston and New York City, represented the Federalist factions while many leaders of the south, particularly Virginia led by Madison and Jefferson, represented the Anti-Federalists. Jefferson, as Secretary of State, persuaded his friend Madison, who by then had a significant influence in the House, to help him strike a deal with Hamilton as to the capital’s location.  Madison would back Hamilton’s Funding Act[26] which would garnish the votes for passage. In return, Hamilton (then Secretary of Treasury) would help Jefferson and Madison secure the votes needed to pass the Residence Act[27]. The capital’s location was confirmed and on January 24, 1791, the site along the Potomac was designated for construction.

Madison and Jefferson Form Their Own Political Party

Washington never envisioned a two-party system and constantly found himself in the middle of disputes between Hamilton (representing the emerging Federalists) and Jefferson (recognized as the leader of the anti-federalists). Madison eventually broke with Washington over the chief executive’s foreign and domestic policies. He criticized Washington for the president’s support of Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, who sought to create a strong central government that promoted commercial and financial interests over agrarian interests. Madison also opposed Hamilton’s chief efforts, to establish a Bank of the United States. He also found fault with the administration’s handling of commercial relations with Great Britain and its seeming favoritism of Britain over France in the French Revolution. Madison’s displeasure with the direction of national policy led him to join with Jefferson—who resigned as secretary of state in 1793—to form an opposition party known as the Democratic-Republicans.[28]

Marries Dolley Payne Todd (1768-1849)

Daughter of Mary Coles and John Payne, Dolley[29] was born in a Quaker settlement in North Carolina. At ten months, she was brought to the family plantation in Hanover County, Virginia. She received little formal education, instead focusing on needle work and managing a household. In 1783, aged fifteen, her parents sold the farm, emancipated their slaves, and moved to Philadelphia. The family faced hardships as John Payne’s business failed in 1789 and he was unable to pay his debts. He was expelled from the Quakers which distressed him emotionally. He became bedridden which led to his early death in 1792. Prior to that, Dolley accommodated her father’s wishes and married lawyer and fellow Quaker John Todd Jr. in 1790. She gave birth to sons John Payne (called Payne) in 1792 and William Temple in 1793. Tragedy struck in the summer of 1793 as Yellow Fever swept through Philadelphia, killing ten percent of the population.  Her mother-n-law and father-in-law soon succumbed to the disease. While Dolley took the children to the countryside, Todd stayed in Philadelphia to wrap up business. He contracted the disease, as did their newborn baby William. Both father and infant died the same day.

The capital of the new nation had been moved from New York City to Philadelphia while it awaited for the initial construction of its new home along the Potomac. Madison returned to his old haunts in Philadelphia when he noticed an attractive young, twenty-six-year-old widow who lived near his boardinghouse. Short and rather sickly, Maddison was a shy man known more for his intellect than his charm. An acquaintance of Dolley’s later described James as “an anchovy! He looks like a country schoolmaster, mourning over one of his pupils he’s just whipped to death.”[30] But friends knew Madison to be extremely charming and very funny, known for his dirty jokes. Many agreed that he wasn’t quite as sober-sided as history painted him.  Madison asked New York Senator and mutual friend Aaron Burr to arrange an introduction (both had attended New Jersey College together). Dolly was initially taken aback by Madison’s interest, but she came to appreciate his affection and, as the single mother of a two-year-old, she saw the potential for security. Madison, aged forty-three at the time, had not noticed women much since a decade earlier, when the young Kitty Floyd had broken his heart to marry another suitor. The rapid courtship (three months) surprised most of Madison’s friends when the couple were married on September 15, 1794. Subsequently expelled from the Quakers for marrying outside the sect, James being an Episcopalian, Dolley discarded her plain clothing and began wearing the fashionable outfits that became an indelible part of her public image. The two developed a bond of love and affection that lasted their entire lives.

John Adams

Madison’s good friend, Thomas Jefferson ran against John Adams in the first presidential race that pitted two separate parties. Jefferson’s running mate was Aaron Burr, also Madison’s good friend. Adams won, and as set by the Electoral College at the time, Jefferson became vice president. Madison decided not to run for re-election and ended his term in the House in 1797, returning to Montpelier and the Virginia Assembly of Delegates.

Virginia Legislature

Madison, as leader of the new Democratic-Republican party, was the driving force behind opposing Adam’s Alien and Sedition Acts[31]. These laws were viewed as attempts to suppress opposition to a Federalist foreign policy that favored England over France.  Madison thought they were fundamental violations of the Bill of Rights. Madison authored the Virginia Resolution, adopted by the state legislature in 1798, which declared the Alien and Sedition laws unconstitutional—Jefferson authored a similar Kentucky Resolution. Madison campaigned heavily for the 1800 election of Thomas Jefferson as President. Alexander Hamilton countered that these new “Jeffersonians” were more French than Americans, supporting France’s confiscation of American shipping in what became known as the Quasi-War or XYZ Affair.^[32] After four years, Thomas Jefferson tried again for the presidency in the next, 1800 election. This time Jefferson defeated Adams and Madison was appointed secretary of state, a position which he retained throughout Jefferson’s presidency.

Secretary of State

As secretary of state, Madison supported the Louisiana Purchase which nearly doubled the size of the United States. He also waged war against the Barbary pirates and favored an embargo against Britain and France.  During the Napoleonic Wars, these nations targeted neutral American shipping, confiscating ships and American seamen to serve in their navies. Although it is difficult to know with certainty, due to Madison’s tendency to avoid the spotlight, most historians agree with the French foreign minister at the time who said that Madison “governed the President” in foreign affairs. Rather than suggesting a weak President, Madison’s domination of foreign policy actually rested upon the President’s confidence in Madison and their mutual agreement on all matters of diplomacy. By 1808, the man behind-the-scenes stood poised to succeed Jefferson as the fourth President of the United States.[33]  One of Jefferson’s last acts was to pressure Congress to finally pass the Embargo Act of 1807. The act soon proved a failure. The effect on American shipping and markets, especially agricultural prices and earnings fell drastically. Shipping-related industries were devastated as well as the general American economy. The embargo was withdrawn on March 1, 1809, just days before Madison took office, however tensions with England would only increase.

Fourth President of the United States

James Madison become the fourth President of the United States[34], defeating Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney in the 1808 election. Unusual for the times, Madison’s wife Dolley played a key role in the election. Although a woman’s involvement in political affairs was frowned upon, she rallied support for her husband through extensive networking. Her success at fundraising and positive personality prompted the opposition candidate Charles Pinckney to grumble, “I might have had a better chance had I faced Mr. Madison alone.”[35]

Madison was inaugurated on March 4, 1809. He won re-election in 1812 against New Yorker Dewitt Clinton, ending his presidency on March 4, 1817. He was succeeded by his Secretary of State, James Monroe, whose presidency ended the succession of Virginian legislatures, after having led the new nation thirty-two of the first thirty-six years. Listed are some of the more major issues that faced Madison during his presidency:

• Throughout his first term, Madison remained preoccupied with maritime and trade disputes with both France and Great Britain as well as longstanding quarrel with Spain over American claims to Gulf Coast, especially West Florida.
• Dealt with the longstanding quarrel with Spain over American claims to Gulf Coast, especially West Florida.
• Things ease up a bit as France repeals commercial restrictions on trade. Continuing crisis with Great Britain shows no signs of easing; trade restrictions remain. Madison announces annexation of West Florida, consolidating American control of Gulf of Mexico.
• By 1811, unable to reach compromise with Great Britain, Madison asks Congress to mobilize American forces for defense of the country.
• After four years of commercial warfare and economic depression for American merchants, and no shift in British policy, Madison seeks declaration of war.
• Congress declares war against Great Britain and Madison signs on June 18, 1812.  Soon after, American forces launch series of invasions into Canada, ending in American surrender of Detroit and Michigan Territory.
• Madison continues to manage war with Great Britain, but fails to achieve any real strategic goals. American naval forces more successful at such places as Lake Erie and the River Thames in Canada. American land forces capture York (present-day Toronto) and restore stability with victories at Chippewa, Lundy’s Lane, and Fort Erie.
• Madison and government evacuate Washington when British forces under command of General George Cockburn defeat American forces in and around the city. Capitol building (including Library of Congress), White House, and other public buildings are torched by victorious British troops. As British troops neared Washington, Madison left the capital to help command the American defense – the only sitting president to do so. Dolley Madison remained at the White House and helped evacuate the building in the face of the approaching British.
• Conflict ends with treaty signed at Ghent, shortly before General Andrew Jackson defeats British army at New Orleans in January 1815.
• One of Madison’s last acts was to create the Second Bank of America in 1816.

Dolley Madison set the stage for future ‘first ladies.” A dazzling figure at the first presidential inauguration ball, Dolley displayed an enthusiasm for social affairs that proved useful to her husband’s administration. She established the executive mansion as Washington D.C.’s social center. She also set the standard for his extensive charitable functions including supporting orphanages. After the British razed and torched the city in 1814, Dolley resumed hosting parties almost immediately after settling in a new residence. It was a show of determination believed to have helped convince her friends in Congress to vote down a plan to move the capital back to Philadelphia.

Retirement and Death

After Madison left office at age 66, he and Dolley retired to his home in Montpelier. In 1801, he had acquired the home and plantation from his parents (his father having died). He soon after began a remodeling plan that improved the building, setting up living quarters for his mother who continued to reside at Montpelier. (Nelly lived to be 97, dying in 1829). During his remaining years, he focused on managing his 5,000-acre estate at Montpelier and stayed active in local politics. Along with his friend Jefferson, he established the University of Virginia and was its director after the death of Jefferson. Dolley and James never had children of their own. While president and during retirement, Dolley and James faced financial hardships. Poor crops and sinking prices cut into their meager savings. However, it was mostly due to Dolley’s son John Payne that their finances were strained. Payne was an alcoholic and gambler, running up enormous debts. He’d also been arrested for assault and firing a weapon. Dolley was devoted to her son and always stepped in to pay his debts and bail him out of prison. While president, James included Payne on an envoy to France, however his stepson spent his time getting drunk including a run in with the law for firing a weapon. His gambling got so bad that the Madison’s eventually had to mortgage their home to pay off his loans.

Towards the end of his life, Madison was bedridden. Dolley would spend ten to twelve hours a day at his bedside. He died on June 28, 1836, age 85, in his first-floor studio, and was buried at their family cemetery near to their estate. He and Dolley had been married for forty-two years. Prior to his death he penned an autobiography. He wrote of Dolley that she had “added every happiness to his life which female merit could impart.”[36] In his will, James left the estate to Dolley along with their many slaves.

After James’ death, Payne[37] continued to borrow extensively to fund his frivolous lifestyle, forcing Dolley to sell off her slaves and the family properties to pay his debts. After Montpelier was sold, she was penniless. She was finally rescued from financial despair when Congress purchased part of Madison’s papers, setting the money in a trust to keep it out of Payne’s hands. Homeless, she moved back to Washington permanently in 1844, marking the start of her golden years as the grand dame of Washington. Hailed as a living connection to the country’s founding fathers, she was awarded an honorary seat in Congress and invited to become the first private citizen to transmit a message via telegraph (from Washington to Baltimore). She also remained closely connected to the public role she popularized by providing guidance to presidential wives Julia Tyler and Sarah Polk.

When she passed away at age 81, Dolley was given a massive funeral attended by thousands. She was eulogized by President Zachary Taylor[38] as the country’s “first lady,” believed to be the first known public reference to the term.[39] She requested to be buried beside James, but was placed in a temporary tomb in Washington, DC. It took ten years to pay down her son’s debts to the point that she could get her dying request. She would be moved to rest beside her “great little Madison” in the family cemetery near Montpelier at the old Mt. Pleasant homestead. The entire country mourned the passing of the woman who had done so much to create the style and meaning of the nation’s capital. “She is the only permanent power in Washington,” declared Daniel Webster. “All others are transient.”[40]

Democracy vs Trumpism

James Madison knew that our democracy is and will forever be fragile, why he worked hard to strengthen it with checks and balances. According to the notes of James McHenry, Maryland delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Benjamin Franklin phrased it best when asked by a woman, “Well Doctor, what have we got a republic or a monarchy?” To which Franklin replied, “A republic, if you can keep it.”  Nearly two hundred years later, Theodore Roosevelt best summed up our present dilemma under Trumpism’s assault on the United States Constitution. He wrote in February, 1895:

“The government cannot endure permanently if administered on a spoils basis. If this form of corruption is permitted and encouraged, other forms of corruption will inevitably follow in its train. When a department at Washington, or at a state capitol, or in the city hall in some big town is thronged with place-hunters and office-mongers who seek and dispense patronage from considerations of personal and party greed, the tone of public life is necessarily so lowered that the bribe-taker and the bribe-giver, the blackmailer and the corruptionist, find their places ready prepared for them.”

Editorial

One can only hope saner minds reign in Trumpism’s cascading lies that burst through cracks in the damn that was once the foundation of this country’s moral truths. That the hatred and self-indulging misinformation brainwashing the masses by extremists and profit seekers are held accountable. And lastly, pray that democracy remains the hardened pillar of stone upon which we, a nation for and by the people, builds upon. James Madison and our Founders would want it no other way.  

FOR FURTHER READING, CHECK OUT THESE GREAT BOOKS ON AMAZON

SIMILAR ARTICLES ON REVOLUTIONARY WAR JOURNAL

Devotion to an Autocrat is NOT Patriotism

Inauguration and Our Founding Fathers: History of its Traditions

Declaration of Independence: Physician Josiah Bartlett of New Hampshire, First to Vote and Second to Sign

Flags of our Forefathers: Grand Union and Stars and Stripes Gallery

Biographies of the American Revolution

RESOURCES

Alley, Robert S. James Madison on Religious Liberty. 1985: Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY.

Blumer, Ronald – writer. PBS American Experience. “Dolley Madison.” 2010.

Burstein, Andrew & Isenberg, Nancy.  Madison & Jefferson. 2013: Random House, New York, NY.

Chapman, Charles Thomas. “Who Was Buried in James Madison as Buried in James Madison’s Grave?: A Study in e?: A Study in Contextual Analysis.”  2005: William & Marry College Master of Arts Thesis Paper.

Cheney, Lynne.  James Madison: A Life Reconsidered. 2014: Penguin Books, NY, NY.

Connecticut History.  “The Connecticut Compromise – Today in History: July 16”  https://connecticuthistory.org/the-connecticut-compromise/

Founders Online Archive. James Madison to the Editor of the Farmers’ Register, 22 March 1836, March 24, 2017, https://founders.archives.gov.

Hicks, Hilery M. “Montpelier, What’s in a Name?” https://digitaldoorway.montpelier.org/2019/05/30/montpelier-whats-in-a-name/

History of American Women.  “James Madison’s First Love”  https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2011/08/kitty-floyd.html

History on-line.  “Dolley Madison”

King and Queen Tavern Museum (KQTM), King and Queen Courthouse, Virginia.  “Donald Robertson’s School.”  http://www.kingandqueenmuseum.org/donald-robertsons-school/ 

Madison, James.  Peterson, Merrill D – ed. A Biography in His Own Words.  1974: Harper & Row and New York Newsweek, NY, NY.

Paris Amanda Spies-Gans.“James Madison” Princeton & Slavery  https://slavery.princeton.edu/stories/james-madison#ref-21

Rosen, Jeffery.  “America is Living James Madison’s Nightmare.”  2018: Atlantic. On-line: https://www.loc.gov/static/collections/james-madison-papers/documents/essayStagg.pdf

Stagg, John A. “An Introduction to the Life and Papers of James Madison” Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/collections/james-madison-papers/articles-and-essays/an-introduction-to-the-life-and-papers-of-james-madison/

Stagg, John A.  “James Madison Life Before Presidency”,  University of Virginia Miller Center, https://millercenter.org/president/madison/life-before-the-presidency

Teaching American History.  “James Madison Jr.”  https://teachingamericanhistory.org/static/convention/delegates/madison

White House Historical Association.  “Dolley Madison’s House”  https://www.whitehousehistory.org/dolley-madisons-house

ENDNOTES

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[1] Stagg: Introduction to the Life and Papers of James Madison

[2] Old Style (O.S.) and New Style (N.S.) are terms sometimes used with dates to indicate that the calendar convention used at the time described is different from that in use at the time the document was being written. There were two calendar changes in Great Britain and its colonies, which may sometimes complicate matters: the first was to change the start of the year from Lady Day (25 March) to 1 January; the second was to discard the Julian calendar in favor of the Gregorian Calendar. Gregorian was the most used in the world going back to Pope Gregory VIII in 1582.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Robertson immigrated to American in 1752. Donald was a graduate of the University of Edinburgh and sought a career as a private tutor to wealthy Virginia families. He gained a reputation during the five years instructing John Baylor’s children. There were few opportunities for schools of higher education in Virginia at this time, most if not all were done through private, in-home tutors. Seeing a need, Robertson opened his school in 1758 on his 150-acre farm. Robertson is known to have been one of the best school masters within the American British Colonies whose personal discipline and exacting manner set a great example for his numerous pupils, many of whom became leaders of the newly formed United States.  By 1773, the last year of his school, he had instructed over 200 boys and a few girls in English, Latin, Sciences, and the Classics. His students included governors, surgeons, lawyers, signers of the Declaration of Independence, numerous officers in the American Revolution, attorney generals, George Rogers Clark of famed Lewis and Clark expedition, senators and congressmen, and of course, the fourth president of the United States, James Madison. Robertson was very supportive of the Revolutionary War and provided the army with corn and beef. On hearing about the signing of the peace treaty in 1781 between Great Britain and the colonies, Robertson is reported to have remarked that the “principles he taught and fought for so hard had finally seen fruition, and he could now rest at ease.” In January, 1783, Robertson died peacefully in his sleep at home in King and Queen County the night after the postal courier had visited to tell him that the Revolutionary War had ended.

[5] King and Queen Museum.

[6] John Witherspoon (1723-1794) was a prominent evangelical Presbyterian minister in Scotland before becoming the sixth president of Princeton in 1768. Upon his arrival, he transformed a college designed predominantly to train clergymen into a school that would equip the leaders of a revolutionary generation.

[7] Committees of Safety were an outgrowth of Committees of Correspondences, regional assemblies which unified the colonies from Boston to Georgia. Committees of Safety were the military arm of these assemblies, purchasing cashes of weapons and overseeing militias’ preparedness.

[8] Patrick Henry would never forgive Madison for taking an opposing view.  He used his influence years later to see that Madison would not be considered as one of Virginia’s senators for the new United States Congress.  Patrick Henry, known for his flamboyant speech that concluded with the famous line “Give me Liberty, or give me death,” proved to be hollow in his commitment. When war broke out, Henry was chosen to be one of the colonels in the new regiments forming for Virginia’s Line. When Henry was not chosen to be a Brigadier General for Virginia’s regiments, he resigned his commission and went home. Seems the planter’s delicate ego took president over one’s country.

[9] Stagg, Miller Center.

[10] Mary House’s residence was very popular in Philadelphia. Housing was at a premium and many delegates to Congress stayed there – for its accommodations and closeness to the where Congress met.  It was reported that Washington considered staying there, however Roger Morris, wealthy Philadelphia merchant and financier of the Revolution, recommended other housing.

[11] History of American Women, James Madison’s First Love

[12] Ibid.

[13] In 1813, four years after James Madison entered the White House, Kitty’s husband died, leaving her a 46-year-old widow with three children. In 1817, her father wrote a will in which he accused her of squandering “considerable sums” of money he had given her, as well as a piece of land worth $7,000, and bequeathed her only $70 a year. Just before he died four years later, Floyd softened and gave Kitty a piece of land in Oneida County and an additional $1,000.  Kitty Floyd was living with a daughter in New York City when she died at age 65 in 1832. She was buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Brooklyn.

[14] History of American Women, James Madison’s First Love.

[15] The medieval French city of Montpellier was built on two hills, and its modest elevation seemed to give it a healthy climate. The city eventually boasted a university and a medical school renowned throughout Europe, which may have added to its reputation as a healthful location.  The Madison property was originally named Mount Pleasant when President Madison’s grandparents, Ambrose and Frances, established their home in 1732 near what is now the Madison family cemetery. The President’s father, James Madison Sr., moved his family up the hill and built a new house ca. 1765. At some point Madison Sr. renamed the property “Montpelier.” Like “Mount Pleasant,” the name “Montpelier” conveyed the image of an idyllic mountain location – but with an added continental flair. (President Madison, in fact, usually spelled “Montpellier” with two L’s, evoking its French origins.)

[16] Stagg.

[17] John Taylor (1753-1824). Influential leader in Virginia during the American Revolution, including state and national matters. He  served in the Revolutionary War as major and colonel; member, state House of Delegates 1779-1785, with the exception of 1782, and 1796-1800; retired from the practice of law and engaged in agricultural pursuits; elected in 1792 to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Richard Henry Lee; reelected in 1793 and served from October 18, 1792, until his resignation on May 11, 1794; presidential elector in 1797; appointed to the United States Senate as a Democratic Republican to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Stevens T. Mason and served from June 4 to December 7, 1803

[18] Stagg.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Teaching American History.

[21] The Great Compromise or Connecticut Compromise:  On July 16, 1787, a plan proposed by Robert Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth, Connecticut’s delegates to the Constitutional Convention, established a two-house legislature. The Great Compromise, or Connecticut Compromise as it is often called, proposed a solution to the heated debate between larger and smaller states over their representation in the newly proposed Senate. The larger states believed that representation should be based proportionally on the contribution each state made to the nation’s finances and defense, and the smaller states believed that the only fair plan was one of equal representation. The compromise proposed by Sherman and Ellsworth provided for a dual system of representation. In the House of Representatives each state’s number of seats would be in proportion to population. In the Senate, all states would have the same number of seats. Amendments to the compromise-based representation in the House on total white population and three-fifths of the black population.

[22] Stagg.

[23] Ibid.

[24] The Massachusetts Compromise was a solution reached in a controversy between Federalists and Anti-Federalists (later the Democratic-Republican Party led by Madison and Jefferson) over the ratification of the Constitution. Anti-Federalists feared the Constitution would lead to an over-centralized government and diminish individual rights and liberties. They sought to amend the Constitution, particularly with a Bill of Rights as a condition before ratification. Federalists insisted that states had to accept or reject the document as written. two noted anti-Federalists, John Hancock and Samuel Adams [no great fans of England as were the Federalists) helped negotiate a compromise. The anti-Federalists agreed to support ratification, with the understanding that they would put forth recommendations for amendments should the document go into effect. The Federalists agreed to support the proposed amendments, specifically a bill of rights.

[25] Stagg.

[26] Funding Act – was passed on August 4, 1790 by the United States Congress  as part of the Compromise of 1790, to address the issue of funding (debt service, repayment and retirement) of the domestic debt incurred by the Colonies;

[27] Residence Act – July 6, 1790: The Act provides for a national capital and permanent seat of government to be established at a site along the Potomac River and empowered President Washington to appoint commissioners to oversee the project. It also set a deadline of December 1800 for the capital to be ready, and designated Philadelphia as the nation’s temporary capital while the new seat of government was being built. At the time, the federal government was operating out of New York City.

[28] Stagg.

[29] Dispute as to Dolley’s true first name. Dolley Madison only used Dolley whenever she referred to herself in writing. Some texts and internet articles list her name as Dolly (namely the ice cream company), Dorothy and even Dorothea: these are not correct. Her parents named her Dolley Payne. As recorded in Quaker records under her parents’ names, “Dolley their daughter was born ye 20 of ye 5 mo 1768.”  Scholars at the Dolley Madison Project, a University of Virginia research project, believe that Madison’s niece, Mary E. E. Cutts, was the first to change Madison’s name in a short 1854 memoir. Cutts wrote that Madison was “named Dorothy in compliment to her mother’s aunt Mrs. John Henry” but that “as she grew up the name was growing out of fashion, so she ever afterwards wrote it Dolley and so she was called.” An 1896 biography entitled Dolly Madison by Maud Wilder Goodwin asserted that Madison’s real name was Dorothea. A combination of the two errors appeared in Allen C. Clark’s 1914 book, Life and Letters of Dolly Madison. Clark stated in his book that Madison’s real name was Dorothea, after Dorothea Spotswood Dandridge, but that “Dorothea was quickly changed to Dolly.”  Again – all these are incorrect. Her name as she and her parents have documented was Dolley.

[30] PBS “American Experience” pg. 5 of transcripts.

[31] Alien and Sedition Acts: The Alien and Sedition Acts were a series of four laws passed by the U.S. Congress in 1798 amid widespread fear that war with France was imminent. The four laws–which remain controversial to this day–restricted the activities of foreign residents in the country and limited freedom of speech and of the press.

[32] XYZ Affair:  Mercantile incidents between French and United States diplomats that resulted in a limited, undeclared war known as the Quasi-War. French leaders were angry that the United States had concluded the Jay Treaty with Great Britain in 1794. Consequently, in 1796 French authorities decided to issue an order allowing for the seizure of American merchant ships, carefully timed to catch as many as possible by surprise.  U.S. and French negotiators restored peace with the Convention of 1800, also known as the Treaty of Mortefontaine

[33] Stagg.

[34] Madison’s vice president was New Yorker George Clinton.

[35] History.com. “Dolley Madison.

[36] Stagg, “An Introduction to the Life and Papers of James Madison.” Pg. 1.

[37] John Payne never amended his ways and died a drunk and penniless a few years after Dolley.

[38] James Madison was a second cousin of Zachary Taylor.

[39] History.com.

[40] PBS, transcript pg. 36.