Axes were among the earliest tools of man found in the Ice and Stone Age. A lump of flint was hacked into chips to make a hatchet the size of a man’s hand. These early implements were used for chopping, cutting, scraping, and sawing (some had jagged edges) and were found throughout England, Europe, Asia, and North America – over a hundred thousand years ago. As man advanced to making pottery, sewing clothing, and tilling grains, he still used stone, bone, and wood for his tools.
Approximately 10,000 years ago, copper was discovered as an easy metal to melt. When mixed with tin, it was found to be hard enough to make tools, including knives and hatchets. This mixture was called bronze and is referred to as the bronze age which lasted until the discovery of iron, approximately five thousand years later. The earliest found smelted iron was 5,000 BC in Mesopotamia and 3,000 BC in India and Egypt.
These early uses of iron were mainly ceremonial and too expensive (eight times the value of gold) for everyday use including military. Therefore, bronze was still common until the manufacturing of iron became cheap enough to be used for tools and weapons. This occurred approximately 1,200 BC which became known as the Iron Age. Later still, steel, which is a hardened iron, was in use in China at around 400 BC and India around 200 BC. Alexander the Great, during his conquest of India, at one point received from his conquest not gold, but thirty pounds of steel. However, steel was not common in Europe until medieval times.
Stone-Age Axes
Stone Age axes were the first axes made of flint and stone and were held by the hand. These included from earliest on: core axe, flake axe (large flake chipped from a core), Lihult axe (roughly hewn greenstone axe – igneous rock containing feldspar and hornblende – of western Sweden), thin-butted axe (from flint for use as a working axe), round stone axe (greenstone axe with rounded profile), and hollow-edged axe (with a concave blade).
What has been called the Battle Axe Culture (3200 – 1800 BC) were stone shaft holed axes that were mounted on the end of shafts similar to later hatchets and axes. These were not made of flint, but various stones, and though the name indicates they were carried in war, they were more for status or ceremonial usages. It is believed that the shaft hole was made so small that it could not be attached to a sufficiently strong handle necessary for battle. These included from the earliest on:
1. Polygonal Axe (3,400-3,000 BC) which included a flared edge, an arched butt, and angled body with grooves and ridges. Usually of greenstone, it was hammered out and polished over the whole surface. This axe was an early example of the later Central European copper axes. 2. Double-headed Battle Axe (3400-2900 BC) mainly of Germany and Denmark. It had a flared edge that was common in later types of double-headed axes along with a flared butt. They were made from hard and homogeneous stones such as porphyry and so too were finely polished. 3. Boat Axe is the old name for the shaft axe of modern use. They were single edged with a flared butt – similar in shape and design of a spear head.
Bronze Age Axes
Bronze Age Axes (2,000 – 500 AD for northern Europe) were often copies of stone axes. With the discovery of the copper and tin mixture, stone axes gave way to bronze with a head of either pure copper or bronze. The bronze axe was cast in molds which enabled the design to be copied in mass. These included from earliest on: 1. Socketed or Celt axe which had a wedge shaped head and no shaft hole. Instead the handle was fixed into a socket at the butt end. It was made hollow so the handle of the shaft was inserted into the head. It proved to be a functional working axe as the handle was often quite long. Later types were smaller with a flared edge. 2. Palstave ax (1500 – 1000 BC) had a narrow butt which inserted into a split wooden handle. The blade was flared and the sides were often decorated with spiral or angular patterns. It was mounted in the split end of a wooden handle and tied into place with leather straps.
Iron Age Axes
Iron age axes (from around 500 BC in Europe) were basically the same as bronze and stone axes reproduced in iron. However, the new materials and designs including the strength and thickness of metals, led the appearance of the axes to change gradually. Non-shaft-hole axes disappeared and were replaced by axes with a hole for a handle. The heads also became larger with broader or ‘bearded’ blades.
Axes Used in Battle
The first axes used in battle were the same that were used in everyday life. Though fiction in the action ‘barbarian’ genre, such as the popular Conan the Barbarian series, used specific axes for battle welded by muscular warrior types, in reality, those who were called to war were ordinary tribesmen, mainly fathers and sons, who grabbed whatever tool was available when battling opposing tribes or kingdoms. It was only later, around 400 AD, with the advent of iron, that the focus shifted to developing specific axes for fighting.
Franzsa Axe
Franziska axes were an early, smaller axe similar to the modern hatchets, that was specifically designed for battle, however it was also useful in the hunt. It was first used by the Franks and later Teutonic tribes and Goths from around 400 – 500 AD. The axe heads were thick and sharp with a distinct short handle. It was effective mostly as a hand weapon in close combat, yet its design allowed it to be thrown as a projectile. However, most combatants most likely kept a firm grip on their prized weapon so as not to be left standing unarmed. When thrown, it would frequently be at a distance of ten or twelve paces from the enemy, yet could still be deadly at larger distances. Because of its unusual shape, when correctly thrown, a Franziska rotated a number of times in the air before the axe blade hit its target. It rotated once at four to five meters, twice at eight to nine meters, and three times at a distance of twelve to thirteen meters. Though carried into battle, these axes were very useful as a projectile during the hunt. When game was spotted, it could, like the spear, be thrown quickly and quietly from a distance with great precision. And once thrown, even if the target was missed, it could be retrieved without threat of attack from an enemy.
Scandinavia Battle Axe
Scandinavia Battle Axes became popular during the Viking Age (800-1100 AD). Nordic smiths developed these axes with longer handles and thinner blades, making the axe head extra light so as to be readily carried into battle and not wear out the warrior through use. This type of axe was commonly in use during the Battle of Hastings in 1066 England as both Franks and Anglo Saxon Housecarls carried them into battle (as documented in the Bayeux Tapestry).
Light Axes on Long Shafts
Light axes on long shafts, known as Hungarian Fokos axes, were carried by 10th century Hungarian warriors The Bulgarians also used a similar design. From the 15th century on, shepherd’s axes appeared in Europe from modern day Romania. The axe was used as a versatile tool that served as a small axe, hammer, and walking stick. These axes became inseparable from shepherds throughout Europe which included heavy, personalized decorative straps.
Predecessor to the Hatchet
Predecessor to the Hatchet, during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance (11th to the 16th centuries), was a small axe with a short handle which was often carried on the belt. They were more refined than its earlier model – Franziska axes. Included among these shorter, hatchet-like axes were throwing axes made entirely of iron in use by the late Middle Ages. The handle was around 25 centimeters long and ended in a point. The butt also had a sharp spike and the cutting edge was around 16 centimeters long.
Large Battle Axes
Large Battle Axes were used by knights of armor who fought on foot. Often these larger axes had the butt end in an iron spike and the hand was protected by an iron plate on the handle. Fifteenth century knights in Germany and France used heavy battle axes which were intended to crush the opponent’s metal armor. They had a shorter handle and more of a blunt edge so to pound the opponent to submission.
Bearded Axe, Half-moon Axe, Bardiche, and Halberd
Bearded axe, half-moon, bardiche, and halberd all were the common name for large battle axes with a broad long head on a long handle. They had an elongated edge with a sabre-like curve called a beard. The lower part of the blade was fixed to the handle with a rivet. The handle was often about 1.4 meters long. Some models had the front part of the axe blade shaped into a hand guard. Many varieties had one or more points or hooks at the butt or protruding from the top of the blade. These bearded halberds had a deadly function in battle when knights of armor met on the battlefield. Later on, particularly in the seventeenth century and right up until the early eighteenth century, they had a more symbolic role carried by a staff sergeant of a particular platoon or company within a regiment.
Executioner’s Broad Axe
Executioner’s Broad Axe gradually replaced the sword as the weapon of choice for beheadings during the latter part of the Middle Ages right up until the 19th century (Sweden still beheaded with the broad axe until 1910). Though England and most European countries implemented the broad axe during executions, the French still preferred a heavy sword to lob off one’s head.
Axe’s Use Declined to the Sword
Axe declined to the sword in popularity, especially as steel swords developed and became the choice of weapon for military officers. However, ordinary citizens and peasants continued to use the axe at times of unrest or in self-defense against bandits as it was cheap and easily accessible.
Eighteenth Century Military Use of Axes
Eighteenth Century Military Use of axes was limited to a small axe or hatchet worn on the belt, carried mainly by huntsmen rifle corps (such as German Jaeger units and American ranger outfits) also some light infantry companies including the American Royal Riflemen and British rifle companies. Halberds were common throughout Europe and used during the American French and Indian War and American Revolution – however mainly for symbolic use.
Tomahawks of North America
Tomahawks of North America were small axes introduced to North America by European settlers and explorers. Before the arrival of Europeans, Native Americans lived in a Stone Age in which only flint and stones were used for tools and weapons; they had never seen iron objects. War clubs were often carried into battle which were bludgeoning weapons such as heavy bones or wooden clubs with stone heads latched at the end. When Europeans first began to explore the New World of the Americas, ‘trade axes’, similar to small European axes worn at the belt, played a major role in trade with the natives – garnishing mainly furs and pelts for shipment back to Europe. These axes were given the collective name of tomahawks.
The word tomahawk either came from the Lenape tribe’s word tamahak, meaning ‘cutting tool’, or from the Powhatan or Algonquian native tongues. These small steel axes, common among the Europeans, had quickly gained favor with the Native Americans for hunting and domestic work. Though the war club continued to be an effective close quarter weapon among Native Americans, these small axes gained importance in battle. Tomahawks, which could be thrown, were part of a long-established European craft and came to be one of the leading symbols of pioneers and Native Americans in the new continent. Colonists propagated a false image of the tomahawk as being solely unique to an ‘Indian’ culture as these axes were so heavily traded among the native population. Tomahawks were frequently carried by the original settlers and ‘mountain men’. Centuries later, Hollywood films continued to promote these small, hand held throwing axes as an invention of the American frontier.
Tomahawks and hatchets were light in weight and particularly useful to the military, could be effectively used with just one hand. Both Native Americans and white settlers, including militiamen and later American, British, and German Infantrymen (mainly rifle and light infantry companies) attached these light weight tomahawks to their belts. They could be most effective in close up hand to hand combat or thrown at the enemy from a distance. Scalping became common in North America as bounties were paid to Native Americans by both sides of European combatants. These scalps, the removal of a portion of the enemy’s hair (dead or alive) became proof of casualties inflicted on the enemy and money or trade was paid in return. However, unlike romantic novels and the movie industry, mostly scalps were removed with a sharp knife and rarely (only when a knife was unavailable) was a tomahawk used. Native American tomahawks were also used in celebrations and ceremonies.
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SOURCES
Atkinson, Alice Minerva. The European Beginnings of American History: An Introduction to the History of the United States. 1912: Ginn & Company, Boston, MA.
Web site: Gransfors Bruks AB Sweden. www.gransforsbruk.com/en/axe-knowledge/the-history-of-the-axe/ Gransfors Bruks built a business based around handcrafted axes and axe expertise. The axe forge is open to the public. In addition to the forge and factory shop, there is an axe museum that has many ancient axes through the centuries on display.
Holmes, Sir Richard. Weapon: A Visual History of Arms and Armour. 2010: Dorling Kindersley, London, UK.
Grant, David. Tomahawks: Traditional to Tactical. 2007: Paladin Press, Boulder, Colorado.
Grose, Francis. Military Antiquities Respecting a History of the English Army. 1801: Oxford University, England.