On November 10, 1775, the future United States Marine Corps was officially born. The Second Continental Congress authorized the raising of two battalions of Continental Marines to be drawn from General George Washington’s army outside Boston. They would be commanded by one colonel, two lieutenant colonels, and two majors, with the subordinate officers chosen along similar lines of the Continental regiments. Each battalion, not including officers, would have five hundred men to be divided into ten companies each. Limiting companies to fifty men deemed the maximum number needed for smaller war ships and combining two for larger vessels. All marines were to be selected from Continental ranks and only those with seamanship skills. On paper it was militarily sound. In reality – it was a pipe dream.
What would become the US Marine Corps was an outgrowth of an American invasion of Canada. Congress had already authorized General Washington to launch a two-prong attack on England’s fourteenth colony. In late August, 1775, Major General Montgomery led a force up Lake Champlain to Montreal that was to carry onto Quebec City. Colonel Benedict Arnold commanded a force that departed Boston in September, 1775 that advanced through Maine to Quebec City where he was to rendezvous with Montgomery. In the fall of 1775, the inhabitants of Passamaquoddv, Nova Scotia formed a Committee of Safety and asked to join the American rebellion. Congress saw its chance for a third invasion into Canada. Halifax, Nova Scotia was a tempting target due to the large quantity of British military stores.
The expedition required a contingency of Continental soldiers to board ships for the assault. Marines were the perfect answer. When Washington was approached to provide troops for the marine battalions, he eventually declined, needing all the men he had to force England’s evacuation of Boston. Before the ink could dry, Congress’ authorization for a marine corps was dead in the water. Or was it? Four months later, 234 marines stormed ashore in what would be the first United States Marine Corps’ amphibious landing. Two forts in the Bahamas were overwhelmed and taken in a hallmark action blazed on generations of a corps proud of the popular motto – Send in the marines. But this was not the first use of soldiers aboard ships; marines had been around for centuries.
Marines Through the Ages
Ancient Greek naval tactics of the fifth to fourth century BCE varied, favoring maneuver and ramming to going straight in for the kill by boarding. Aboard ship were epibatai, marines chosen from land based heavy infantry called hoplite. Weaponry was similar, but with lighter cuirass (armor covering neck to torso) of linen for better movement aboard ship. Archers, or toxotai, poured arrows onto enemy decks while protecting officers and helmsmen. Formed in 311 BCE, Roman classiarii were soldiers trained and equipped like legionaries, but specialized for maritime duty. Siege catapults hurled deadly missiles as ships drew close whereas boarding actions became crucial, particularly during the Punic Wars against Carthage (264 to 146 BCE). Corvus, or boarding bridges, allowed the classiarii to surge onto enemy ships, transforming a sea battle into land-based combat; something the Roman’s perfected.
When the two ancient empires fizzled, marines remained a salient cog of naval operations. Byzantine, Arab, Ottoman, and emerging European powers fought for Mediterranean dominance. In an age when battle galleys became tall ships that belched fiery catapults of Greek fire instead of cannon shot, land-based soldiers still formed the core of boarding parties. Though the Battle of Zonchio, August 1499, between Venetians and the Ottoman Empire, was one of the first to use ship borne cannon, the ancient role of marines remained the same. Spear and sword was the main weaponry as this predated musketry aboard ship. But there wasn’t long to wait. Around twenty years later, in the early 1520’s, arquebuses specialized for use at sea first lined Portuguese gunnels. Marines could now fire upon enemy ships as they approached from what was later called pistol shot. Still, land-based soldiers, they lined rigging and crows’ nests to fire lead down upon their foes while fellow marines joined sailors boarding ships when enemies grew close enough.
By the 1770’s, flint-lock muskets had long replaced serpentine fuses as the British and French trained well-organized companies of marines that spread among fleets sailing the world. Marines were still chosen from land-based regiments, but so too, recruited from the populace, particularly those with seamanship skills. Their duties remained those of their ancient colleagues who had lined ship’s gunnels and hurled spears before drawing swords and lunging onto enemy decks. However, with tall ships that could sail the globe, the ability to capture forts strewn throughout colonies that speckled the earth gained dominance. Amphibious landings became the expertise of marine companies assigned to every war ship. After forts and coastal settlements were bombarded, marines swarmed ashore and laid claim to the prize. And that is what Congress had in mind when they envisioned marine battalions storming Halifax. But throughout history, the key word describing marines was navy. And in this the Americans did have one. Unlike the two marine battalions, by the end of October, 1775, five ships ready for fitting armaments had been purchased.
Birth of American Navy
Nearly six months into the war, the Second Congress had been spurred to action when intelligence arrived reporting that two British brigs laden with arms and powder were sailing to Quebec. If these, and future such shipments, could be captured, it would supply sorely needed weaponry and ammunition for the newly formed army surrounding Boston. On October 5, 1775, a committee of three delegates formed to explore intercepting the two British brigs; Silas Deane, John Langdon, and John Adams. On the 13th, Congress voted to fit out two armed vessels to intercept British ships laden with military stores; in effect, establishing the first of an American Navy ordered by and paid for by the new United States Government. Soon after, when working out costs, John Adams was replaced by Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina.
On October 28th, four more members were added to what became the now Naval Committee.[1] It was decided two more ships were to be added. The next step was to find adequate vessels. And in that, the Committee had no further to look than at the end of the block, beyond the Philadelphia docks, to anchored ships in the Delaware River. Four ships were promptly purchased by the end of October. The first was the Black Prince, a new, 440-ton merchantman owned by a group of Philadelphia businessmen that was rechristened the 30-gun Alfred. [2]Shortly after followed three more ships; the Sally was renamed the 28-gun Columbus,[3] a brig was rechristened the 14-gun Cabot,[4] and a former brig called the Defiance was named the 14-gun Andrew Doria.[5]
Continental Marines Become a Reality
Towards the end of November, 1775, Washington had yet to officially decline providing troops for the newly authorized marine battalions. But he had indicated in correspondence with Congressional President John Hancock his hesitation on the notion. Congress got the hint and on November 28th, abandoned plans to attack Halifax. That same day they commission the first Continental (later United States) Marine officer; Philadelphian Captain Samuel Nicholas.[6] On November 30th, Congress relieved General Washington of the responsibility to supply troops for the Marines. Instead, the job was turned over to Captain Nicholas. He was to recruit men independently from the Philadelphia region to form the first Continental Marine Corps.[7]
The thirty-one-year-old Quaker wasted no time and went straight to work. Though son of a blacksmith, he had risen high among the social elite of Philadelphia, befriending many of the American rebellion’s movers and shakers.[8] As one of the founders of the exclusive Gloucester Fox Hunter’s club, whose gentlemen membership involved the wealthiest families of western New Jersey and Philadelphia, he began by recruiting his officers from some of its members. By early December, 1775 he had his subordinates for the new Marine Corps. The following is listed in the order they were commissioned:
- Captain Samuel Nicholas
- Captain Joseph Shoemaker
- Lieutenant Isaac Craig – popular Irish immigrant and ranking lieutenant
- Captain John Welsh
- Lieutenant John Hood Wilson – ranking lieutenant along with Craig
- Lieutenants John Fitzpatrick, Robert Cummings, Matthew Park, Henry Dayton.
- Lieutenant Miller – not with the first mission thereby had not accepted or had resigned
Recruitment of rank and file was handled by the three captains and two ranking lieutenants; Craig and Wilson. It is believed that Captain Nicholas had served some time as an innkeeper and knew many of the tavern owners of the city. Rendezvous points were established at these public houses where meetings were held and new recruits gathered. Either the Tun Tavern or Conestoga Wagon (reported to be owned by Nicholas) are bandied as the ‘birth place’ of the Marine Corps, in effect, the only service to have started in a bar. Drummers were sent out marching the streets, literally drumming up bodies as officers called out, enticing men to join the new marines. Drums were richly painted to help draw notice; one with a coiled rattlesnake on a yellow background about to strike. It bore the moto “Don’t Tread on Me,” designed by Christopher Gadsden, South Carolina delegate to Congress and member of the Navy Commission.[9] This totem, printed on a flag, was adopted by the Continental Marines and became the first Navy commander, Commodore Esek Hopkins,’ personal standard.[10] It flew from his flagship, Alfred, during the first expedition by the Navy and Marine Corps in February, 1776.
There was no standard uniform at first. It is believed that when commissioned, Captain Nicholas wore the outfit of his hunting club that sported green jackets. Some of his first officers were also members of the popular club and may have donned this while recruiting. It is not clear if Nicholas contracted uniforms to be sewn for his new corps prior to the first fleet action in February, 1776. With Nicholas’ later recommendations to the Marine Commission, the official uniform was authorized on September 5, 1776: Green coats with white facings on lapels, lining, and cuffs with a black leather high collar. Officers wore white trousers and enlisted men were of buff. On top, officers wore the traditional tricorn hat while rank and file donned a black, round felt hat with white binding and brim turned up on one side (this to accommodate the musket and bayonet height).
Ranking Lt. Isaac Craig began forming the corps on December 9, 1775, signing nine men the first day. He became the most successful recruiter; by December 22nd, he had enlisted more than forty men. Most of his enlistees were recent immigrants to America. Only eight had been born in the colonies. Most immigrants were from England, Ireland with a spattering from Germany, Switzerland, and Holland. The average age of Craig’s recruits were 25 and a half and average height, 5’ 5”.[11] The men came from a wide variety of backgrounds more in line with trades rather than gentlemanly finance; however, there was one doctor who Craig enticed to join.[12] By the end of December there were five companies of marines as musters continued to fill. Of interest, almost all those recruited for this first corps of marines were ‘landsmen,’ few having worked in the merchant marine service.
Navy and Marine Regulations Established
By early December, 1775, before Captain Nicholas began to recruit his new marine corps in earnest, Congress had approved legislation that organized and regulated the navy that included the marine corps. Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies (later the United States) had been formulated by John Adams based upon the British Royal Navy. The British Navy’s code of conduct, known as the Articles of War, were read aloud to assembled crew of His Majesty’s Ships once a month to enforce strict discipline and duty. By Acts of Parliament, articles within mandated obedience, prohibited swearing and drunkenness, and prescribed death for cowardice or mutiny. They were designed to maintain order, morality, and operational efficiency with strict obedience to superiors. Congress established 44 articles along similar lines that dealt mainly with discipline, but included rations, pay, and length of service. Also established were 18 naval ranks from captain to ‘before the mast,’ seamen. The regulations applied to all men serving on board a Continental ship.
Discipline: Of the 44 articles, most detailed a penal code similar to England’s Articles of War in which minor to major offences were outlined with consequences clearly stated. Swearing was punished by wearing a wooden collar “or other such shameful badge of distinction.” Enlisted men were put in irons for drunkenness while officers lost two days’ pay. Minor offences that did not require a court-martial could result in no more than “twelve lashes upon his bare back, with a cat of nine tails.” This was similar to the Royal Navy except that His Majesties officers could order up to 24 lashes if desired and stack charges up to 48.[13] Greater punishments that involved robbery, quarreling, derelict to duty, desertion, and mutiny required a court-martial judged by naval and marine officers. An automatic death sentence was imposed for convictions of murder and cowardice in battle.
Rations. Fixed rations were set for each day of the week aboard ships. For example: Saturday, regulations called for a pound of bread, one pound of pork, half a pint of peas, and four ounces of cheese to be issued to each man. If needed or desired, vegetables and rice could be substituted.[14] Rum was critical to the 18th century military functioning as a daily ration to combat fatigue, sanitize water, and prevent disease (especially in tropical climates). It was also thought to boost morale, maintain discipline, prevent mutiny, stiffen resolve prior to combat, and as a reward for readiness; at times used for payment. Each man on ship was to receive half a pint per day with “discretionary allowance on extra duty, and in time of engagement.”
Pay and Prizes. Marines were prescribed the following monthly pay scale in dollars:[15]
- Captain – 26 and 2/3
- Lieutenant – 18
- Sergeant – 8
- Corporal, Fifer, Drummer – 7 and 1/3
- Private 6 and 2/3
The navy’s monthly pay scale over eighteen ship ranks ran from $32 for captain to $6 and 2/3 for able seaman. Officers and crewmen were to share the proceeds of prizes, ships taken at sea and brought to American ports to be sold. The first year of existence, navy and marine officers and crew received a set amount in dollars:
- Ship’s commander – 400
- Captain of Marines – 300
- All other officers and seamen and marines – 200
- The man who first sighted the captured ship – double his amount
- The first person to board the captured ship – triple his amount.
By January 1777, this was changed along similar lines of the Royal Navy whereas proceeds from the sale of the prize was divided into twentieths; a captain would share equally in three twentieths with naval and marine lieutenants and so on.
Length of Service. John Adams and others of the Navy Commission first envisioned recruits serving for the war’s duration. When this was proposed to General Washington in November, 1775, he frowned upon it, stating that it would be hard pressed to find men willing to serve that long. He advised to limit it to one year.[16] On December 5, 1775, Congress resolved that navy and marines would be engaged for one year, ending January 1, 1777, “unless sooner discharged by Congress.” This brought the term of service for marines and navy in line with Continental troops; however, state militias varied from one year to as little as three months called “ninety-day wonders.”
First Marine Expedition Prepares to Sail
Around 2 PM, Thursday, January 4, 1776, “the first American Fleet that ever swelled their sails on the western ocean…sailed from Philadelphia amidst acclamation of many thousands assembled on the joyful occasion.”[17] Lieutenant James Josiah on board the Continental brig Andrew Doria opened his logbook and penned the following, “At 2 PM, cast off from ye Warf in Company with ye Comodore Ship Alfred, Columbus & Cabot, Light airs from ye Westward & much Ice on ye River.” Earlier that morning, the Continental Marines stood in the chilled air either alongside the wharves below South and Water Streets. They faced six Continental men-of-war, former schooners, privateers, and merchantman armed for combat and ready to sail. They lined up to board their assigned ships in what would be the first fleet action of the newly formed United Colonies Navy. It would also be the first major action of the newly recruited Continental Marines.
With supplies loaded and able seamen ready to cast off, the last of the marines took their place among the crew: Captain Samuel Nicholas, Lieutenants Matthew Parke, and John Fitzpatrick with a company of 60 marines boarded the 30-gun, two decker Alfred. Largest of the converted merchantmen, she sported twenty 9-pounders on the lower deck and ten 6-pounders on the upper. As such, she was the flagship of the American Navy’s first commander, Commodore Eske Hopkins.[18]
- Captain Joseph Shoemaker, Lieutenants James Dickenson and Robert Cummings with 60 marines boarded the 28-gun Columbus. Another two decker, she was armed with eighteen 9-pounders on the lower deck and ten 6-pounders on the upper.
- Lieutenant Isaac Craig and 38 of the 44-man company he had raised in December boarded the 16-gun brig Andrew Doriaa; armed with 6-pounders.
- Captain John Welsh and Lieutenant John Hood Wilson with 40 marines boarded the smaller brig, 14-gun Cabot; armed with 6-pounders.
- Lieutenant Henry Dayton with 14 marines raised by Lt. Wilson and the remaining 6 of Lt. Craig’s company were assigned the Providence that was not ready for sea. The sloop was still undergoing alterations to install twelve 4-pounders.
- No marines were assigned to the Fly. A schooner carrying six 9-pounders and assigned to the fleet as a tender.[19]
But the fleet got no further than Liberty Island, south of Philadelphia in the Delaware River channel. There they waited for additional supplies and Commodore Hopkin’s orders. While some marines received muskets, bayonets and much needed ammunition, Hopkins learned Congress’ intentions. Rather than sail north to assist General Washington’s small fleet of privateers, the Rhode Islander was to head south, and rid the Chesapeake Bay and Carolina coast of British men-of-war. Three months earlier, the southern delegates disfavored the idea of a Continental Navy. To obtain their support, northern delegates agreed that the first naval expedition was to relieve southern ports boxed in by the British blockade. After Hopkins succeeded in his orders to “search out and attack, take or destroy all the naval force of our enemies that you may find [in the Chesapeake]” He was then to proceed to North and South Carolina. There he was to attack British ships that were not his superior, to help ease the blockade on merchant ships and privateers.
With ice forming around the ships, Hopkins ordered the fleet further along the Delaware to Reedy Island. There they were boxed in by ice for six weeks. A young Lt. John Paul Jones recalled days on end where he and other subordinates kept watch for desertions, mainly those who joined in a burst of enthusiasm; lost when confronted with hard work and boredom of military life. During this time, it is assumed Commodore Hopkins had time to review his orders. He received disturbing intelligence that Royal Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, had received reinforces to his fleet in the Chesapeake Bay. This addition matched the American fleet in fire power.
EARLY NAVY FLAGS BELOW 1: The first United Colonies (later United States) Navy flag was just red and white stripes: 1776 – 1777. 2: This is the first Grand Flag of the United States authorized by General Washington on January 1, 1776. It was more often carried by land units as ships during this period commonly displayed the first flag. 3: This flag never existed. It is incorrectly depicted in artwork and modern internet articles. It was the brainchild of Admiral George Henry Preble, first appearing in his 1880 publication, History of the Flag of the United States.
But of perhaps more importance, Hopkins knew of Washington’s critical need for powder and shot, as well as all things military in supplies. Intelligence reported that a large depot of arms and munitions were stored at Nassau on New Providence Island in the Bahamas.[20] With the British focused on supplying their army at Boston and patrolling the American coastal waters, this left the village and two nearby forts basically ignored and prime targets for capture. Also, the British admiralty considered any American squadron would sail north to New York or to Boston to aid Washington’s army. When the ice finally cleared, two more ships joined the fleet up from Baltimore; the sloop Hornet[21] with ten 4-pounders, and the schooner Wasp with eight 2-pounders. By the time 234 marines and 680 seamen on eight newly fitted men-of-war sailed on February 14, 1776, Commodore Hopkins had trashed his orders. He would make straight for the Bahamas. The United Colonies Navy cleared the Delaware Bay for the Atlantic, eager for its first fleet action.
Squadron Arrives at Nassau
A brief but severe Atlantic gale caused the Hornet to return to port, leaving seven ships with the Wasp limping along. The fleet did not encounter enemy war ships during the passage with only two prizes taken. John Paul Jones recorded in his journal[22] that the squadron was at sea for two weeks when sail were spotted. The Alfred captured two coastal sloops that proved to be owned by New Providence. On March 1, 1776, three days before Washington ordered Ticonderoga cannon positioned on Dorchester Heights outside Boston, American fleet anchored off the southwest side of Providence Island, fifty miles to the north of Nassau. As Hopkins expected, the Island and its defenses were ripe for the taking.
The village of Nassau was a typical small, remote colonial capitol. Lightly built wooden framed houses dotted the landscape with basically a roof and open sides. A church, goal, and administrative buildings lined the one main street. Residents were mainly tradesmen, merchantmen, and fishermen; the planters that drove the economy lived nearby on their estates. Only one British armed schooner was present, the St. John, and it was in disrepair. The backbone of the island’s defenses was the 14th Regiment of Foot, but was drawn to St. Augustine, East Florida with a company sent to Virginia to aid Royal Governor Lord Dunmore.[23] This left Royal Governor Montfort Browne[24] with just the island’s provincial militia of 300 men commanded by Major Robert Sterling. But at any one time, most of the militiamen where fishing, with few available to man the two crumbling forts built in the 1740’s to protect the town from invasion.
Providence Harbor and Nassau were protected by two forts built on either side of Nassau on Providence Island. Hog Island, just offshore from Nassau, formed a channel to the village and harbor at both east and west approaches. The forts were built to defend these two entrances to the harbor. The western entrance was guarded by Fort Nassau located on the edge of town; a square stone fort with two bastions. It was destroyed by French and Spanish forces in 1744, but had been rebuilt. Over the years it had fallen into such disrepair, that by 1775, though mounting forty-six 12 and 18 pounders, it was totally useless; it was feared that if guns were fired, the walls would collapse. So too, high ground from the south offered infantry a clear shot down on defenders. At the eastern entrance was Fort Montagu which was better off. It was a small square stone redoubt mounting seventeen 12 and 18-pounders.[25] The forts had seen better days since Governor John Tinker boasted to the Duke of Montague in August 1742, that the defenses at New Providence proved the strongest possession in British America.”
On March 2, after learning of Nassau’s vulnerable defenses from the captured sloops’ captains, Commodore Hopkins ordered marines issued muskets, ammunition, and swords. While seamen readied their ships for action, the marines were transferred from perspective ships to the two captured sloops and the Providence. That evening, the squadron weighed anchor and sailed for New Providence. Hopkins’ and his captains plan called for a sudden, frontal assault by his marines. With the fleet remaining beyond sight of land, the three ships carrying marines hidden below decks were to sail into the harbor at dawn. Once they “got close to the Fort [Fort Nassau]…they were then to land Instantly & take possession before the island could be Alarmed.”[26] Once the fort was taken, they were to march on Nassau and assault the eastern Fort Montague. What Hopkins’ plan called for would be the first U. S. Marines Corps amphibious landing.
Every general will tell you, once you engage with the enemy, plans become liquid; some prefer to toss them out the window. On March 3rd, instead of just three ships of marines slipping unnoticed into the harbor at the first rays of dawn, botched signals sent the whole fleet sailing straight for Providence. The town awakened with a squadron of enemy sail at their doorstep, giving a panicked Governor Browne time to prepare what defenses he had. And they proved dismal. By 9 AM, only 30 militiamen had answered the drum to alarm (of the three alarm guns fired, two had collapsed carriages). The defenders were unarmed or with muskets unfit for service. Finding what arms to be had, the collection of military misfits were herded towards Fort Montagu.
Meanwhile, Commodore Hopkins realized his fleet’s blunder forfeited any hope of surprise when the three alarm guns boomed over the harbor. With the wind against him, any plan now for ships to enter the harbor would fall prey to the forts’ guns (having no way of knowing how poorly manned the guns would be). He had no choice but to tack toward the east where at 10 AM, the fleet anchored six miles from Nassau, allowing Hopkins to draw up new plans. With the assistance of pressed pilots from the two prizes, the fleet was guided to a safe anchorage that allowed them to launch their marine invasion of Hog Island. After consulting with his captains, with the element of surprise lost, Hopkins decided to forego attacking Fort Nassau directly, but take a ‘back door’ approach by landing the marines on the eastern end and taking Fort Montagu first. Captain Nicholas would land his 234 marines, but since Hopkins considered this approach more difficult, joining the marines were 50 sailors under Second Lt. Thomas Weaver of the Cabot (who had spent time in Providence Island and was aware of the region).
Marine Corps First Amphibious Landing
Once close enough to shore, around noon, the marines and sailors slipped over the side onto whale boats for the final approach. The flag it was recorded they planted after splashing ashore was not the coiled snake that was adopted early by the marines, but the Continental Grand Union flag set by Washington on January 1, 1776 (red and white stripes with a British Union Jack in the upper left corner). Meanwhile, two miles east of the landing site, they had been spotted by the defenders of Fort Montague under Lt. Pratt. He had been reinforced with 30 additional militia, bringing their numbers to around 60. Pratt sent half this force to the beach to learn the identity of the invaders and if possible, prevent them from landing. Once the party saw the number of marines scrambling over the boat gunnels, they gave up all thought of attacking, instead sending a flag of truth to gain intelligence. The militiaman returned saying he’d been told “they were sent by the Congress of the United Colonies to posses themselves of the Powder and Stores belonging to His Majesty.”[27] Without firing a shot, the militia immediately high tailed it back to the fort. By 2 PM, the marines had formed into two columns and set off for the fort.
The marine invasion was reported to the 80 defenders at Fort Nassau. The town council ordered Major Sterling to march his garrison to Fort Montague to prevent a landing. Browne showed up at Fort Nassau just as they were leaving and took command. No sooner than Browne reached Fort Montague, he sent 40 men to reinforce the scouting party. They ran into the party hoofing it back to Montague; the reinforcements turning about and joining them. From the moment the Americans showed themselves, Browne had been near hysterical with indecision. When the seventy odd men reached Fort Montague and reported American marines were right behind, rather than defend the redoubt, Browne ordered cannon spiked and abandoned the garrison for Fort Nassau; then excused himself, saying he had business back at the government office.
Later critics tore into the governor, stating the stone redoubt armed with 12 and 18-pound cannon and 150 garrison could have fended off four times the number of approaching marines. Especially since the enemy was without cannon. Also, an ambush along the tight coastal trail that the Americans would have to follow from the fort to the city could have devastated the attacking marines. However, lack of Commodore Hopkins’ foresightedness in planning proved to be a major American loss while a coup for the British.
Gunpowder Escapes
Captain Nicholas led the marine columns to the abandoned Fort Montagu. Instead of pushing on to the town and besieging Fort Nassau that housed the sought after munitions, he decided to halt and let his weary and hungry troops spend the night in the deserted fort. He sent a dispatch to Hopkins, reporting the day’s progress and informing him of his decision. Instead of ordering his captain of marines to press forward and secure the ammunition and supplies, the main reason he decided to disregard orders and sail south, Hopkins concurred. He then distributed pamphlets to Nassau residents, informing them that no one would be harmed before and after the British goods were seized; hoping to take the town without violence.
But therein lies the rub. Hopkins came in the front door, but left the back door wide open. The Providence and Wasp, along with two sloops guarded the east entrance to the harbor. Further to the east, about six miles, the rest of the American fleet was still anchored at Hanover Sound. This left the western and main entrance to the harbor unguarded. Every port entrance is also an exit, and in that Governor Browne took advantage. Almost 200 barrels of gunpowder remained at Fort Nassau. That night, while the marines rested at Fort Montagu, the barrels were loaded aboard the St. John and a lumber ship, Mississippi Packet, whose captain, William Chambers, dumped his cargo of lumber in the harbor to make room for the powder. At 2 AM, with 162 barrels of precious powder filling their holds, the two ships slipped silently through the unguarded western passage and sailed for St. Augustine, East Florida. Therefore, with the loss of the powder, gone was the primary objective of the expedition and upon that, the responsibility fell upon Hopkins.[28]
Plunder Loaded and Fleet Sails North
With the powder gone, so too were Fort Nassau’s defenders. Standing in a decaying fort with 300 marines and sailors breathing down their necks, the militia saw the writing on the wall. Nearly to a man, they deserted their posts for home. Come morning, Governor Browne and his wealthy planter council found themselves the sole fort’s defenders. Browne gave up his earlier boast that if he had to, he would stand alone to face his enemy rather than yield, turning tail for his government estate when the first marines were sighted. Captain Nicholas marched his men to Fort Nassau and demanded the keys to the gate. He and his men immediately entered to claim the second fort and the town of Nassau. Throughout the bloodless operation, there were no casualties for not a single shot was fired.
A pompous governor who complained it was beneath his dignity to be escorted by marine rogues and common hoodlums, was grabbed and dragged unceremoniously to the Alfred and prison. Even though he had missed out on the gun powder, Hopkins had more than enough booty to load onto his ships that took the better part of two weeks. Forty cannon in Fort Nassau were removed from rickety carriages and transported to ships’ holds including the spiked cannon at Montague. Tonnage of cannon and musket shot were hauled as well as a sundry of military items and food supplies; especially rum. Running out of storage room, the Fly finally caught up on March 11th and was quickly filled. The remaining goods were stowed aboard the Endeavor, a contracted merchantman in port when the Americans arrived.
Hopkins was keen to sail. Not only fearful of a British warships pulling into port on a routine mission, but townsmen had failed to supply food to his onshore marines as promised. When small pox and fever broke out, Hopkins pushed hard to finish up pillaging all that they could take and be on their way. By March 16th, with holds filled to capacity, the marines returned to their designated ships the next day. The afternoon of March 17th, Commodore Hopkins bid adieu to Nassau as billowing canvas caught the wind and the American fleet made for open seas.
Rhode Island Banks and First Marines to Fall in Battle
From the Bahamas, Hopkins had set sail to cruise off Rhode Island, south of Block Island. Several small prize ships were seized including the HMS Bolton, a bomb ship with mortars and 46 British marines on board. Absent the Fly, which was separated in a storm and found its way to the Chesapeake, the fleet had done well in prizes with no major action. This changed just after midnight, April 6th, when the fleet caught sight of a large frigate and tender on the horizon in what would be called the Battle of Block Island. The Cabot shot forward to investigate and came upon the HMS Glasgow, a 20-gun frigate under Captain Tryingham Howe. The Cabot’s 6-pounders fired, but the Glasgow’s 9-pounders responded in two devastating broadsides. Two marines, Patrick Kaine and George Ken were killed and Lieutenant John Hood Wilson was wounded who later died. Cabot was forced to retire as the rest of the American fleet caught up.
The Alfred unleashed her 9-pounders into the Glasgow. The two ships cannon belched flames as they erupted broadside for broadside. During the exchange, Captain Nicholas’ second lieutenant, John Fitzpatrick, was felled by a musket ball through the head. After the Alfred’s till was shot away and she temporarily pulled from the fight, the Columbus and Andrew Doria got into the fray. For an hour and a half, the battle had raged until the Glasgow, fearing she would be boarded, set sail and broke off. Even though her canvas and rigging was in tatters, the American ships were so bloated from the spoils of Nassau, that they could not catch up and the Glasgow escaped; the tender was caught. Alfred lost five killed and seven wounded. Cabot had four killed and seven wounded. Columbus and Andrew Doria only one wounded each. On April 8th, the fleet arrived New London, Connecticut and offloaded Nassau’s plunder. Of Marines, seven had died and four were wounded.
Congress was not happy with Hopkin’s disobeying their orders. It did not help the Commodore’s fate by delivering the supplies taken from Nassau to Connecticut and not Congress in Philadelphia. Over the next year, after several instances of misconduct and poor judgement levied by captains of ships under his command, Hopkins was first censured and later drummed out of the service. His position as commander of the United Colonies Navy was not replaced, leaving the matter of fleet and singular expeditions up to the digression of ship commanders and state provincial governments. Captain Nicholas was promoted to major on June 25, 1776 and tasked with raising four new companies of Marines for four new frigates then under construction.
After successful fleet actions and single state privateering missions, by December 1776, many marines were in Philadelphia waiting on ship repairs or the lessening of ice to set sail. When British forces moved toward that city in December, 1776, Washington, desperate for troops, ordered companies of marines to help thwart the British advance across New Jersey. Though too late to assist in the Battle of Trenton, December 26, 1776, the marines played a major role eight days later during the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777.
In 1777 and 1778, there were fewer ships available for marines after England tightened the grip on American ports and coastal waters. Several American ships were captured or destroyed (many by American forces so they would not fall into British hands). So too, Congress was running out of money to issue the purchase of new ships or converting merchantmen to war ships. When France entered the war, they assumed the major role of early American fleet operations and hazarding British shipping; however, American privateers still roamed the seas, often using former marines. With so many idle marines in camp, Washington began to assimilate them into his Continental army, particularly his artillery companies.
Of Note:
The first marine ‘mustangs’, rank and file promoted to lieutenants often after battle field commissions, were Sergeants William Hamilton and Alexander Neilson, October, 1776. They were promoted to second lieutenants and fought at the Battle of Princeton, January 3, 1777. The first Black marine was John Martin (nickname Keto), recruited by Captain Wickes out of Wilmington who at the time was enslaved. Martin served aboard the Reprisal. After a successful campaign in European waters, the ship was returning from France when on November 1, 1776, she foundered in a violent storm off the Newfoundland Banks. Martin died among the 129 ship’s crew with one survivor, a cook found clinging to wreckage was picked up by a French ship.
In other major actions, January, 1778, a marine detachment sailed down the Mississippi River and secured New Orleans, cutting it off from British traders. Fifty marines were killed on March 7, 1778, when the 36-gun frigate USS Randolph blew up battling the 64-gun HMS Yarmouth. Two amphibious landings of marines was affected by Captain John Paul Jones; April 22nd, St. Mary’s Island, England and April 23, Whitehaven. On July 26, 1779, Continental Marines landed and captured Nautilus Island and the Majabagaduce Peninsula during the unsuccessful Penobscot Expedition.
The last official act of the Continental Marines was to escort French silver crowns on loan from Boston to Philadelphia, enabling the opening of the Bank of North America. The Continental Marines, established on November 10, 1775, were officially disbanded in April 1783 following the end of the war. The United States Marine Corps (USMC) was formally re-established by Congress on July 11, 1798. Despite this gap, the USMC celebrates its official birthday as November 10, 1775.
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Reference
Field, Ron. The U.S. Marine Corps, 1775-1759, Continental and United States Marines. 2023: Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK.
Jones, John Paul. Life and Correspondence of John Paul Jones Including his Narrative of the Campaign of the Linman. 1830: Published in New York, NY.
Millet, Allan R. Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps. 1991: Free Press, a division of Simon and Schuster, New York City, NY.
Schenawolf, Harry. “USS Randolph: Worst Loss of Life Until Pearl Harbor.” January 31, 2026, Revolutionary War Journal.
Simmons, Edwin Howard. United States Marines A History, 3rd Edition. 1974: Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland.
Smith, Charles R. Marines in the Revolution: A History of the Continental Marines in the American Revolution 1775-1783. 1975: US Government Printing Office, Washington DC.
Endnote
[1] Instead of three, the committee’s membership was expanded to seven by the addition of John Adams, Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island, Joseph Hewes of North Carolina, and Richard Henry Lee of Virginia.
[2] Alfred was fitted with twenty 9-pounders on a newly installed lower deck and ten 6-pounders on upper deck. Named for King Alfred the Great (871–899), King of Wessex, is widely regarded as the “Father of the Royal Navy” for creating the first English fleet to combat Viking invaders.
[3] Columbus was a 200-ton of eighteen 9-pounders and ten 6-pounders.
[4] Cabot was a 189-ton of fourteen 6-pounders.
[5] Andrew Doria, a 190 ton with fourteen 4-pounders. Andrew was not to be confused with Andrea Doria. She was named to honor the 16th-century Genoese admiral, Andrea Doria, but used the English spelling or masculine for Andrea.
[6] Captain Samuel Nicholas (1744 – 1790) age 46. Philly Quaker and blacksmith’s son. The first Marine officer, he recruited the first marine corps in Philadelphia. Nicholas officially assumed command of the Marine Detachment on board the Alfred; Commodore Esk Hopkins in command. The Alfred and infant American fleet set sail from Philadelphia on the morning of January 4, 1776.
[7] Some argue that the first soldier/marines had already served aboard ship during Benedict Arnold’s capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May, 1775 and later expedition on Lake Champlain to capture British ships on the Richelieu River in Canada. Also, soldiers were aboard state sponsored ships during the early days of privateers authorized by General Washington in the summer and fall of 1775, when he first took over command of the American army outside Boston. But these actions were outside the realm of Congress officially establishing a corps of soldiers specifically to act in accordance with the navy as designated marines. This did not occur until the Marine Commission of October, 1775, in effect, the actual birth of the US Marine Corps.
[8] Among Nicholas’ influential rebel friends were: John Cadwalader, Thomas and James Wharton, Robert and Samuel Morris, John Nixon, Clement Biddle, and Thomas Willing.
[9] The rattlesnake design was taken from an earlier image “Join or Die.” It was a 1754 political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin published in the Pennsylvania Gazette in Philadelphia. It addressed the disunity of the thirteen colonies during the build up to the French and Indian War. Delegate Christopher Gadsden of S. Carolina took the snake and positioned it in a striking position. Adopted by the US Marine Corps, it became an iconic symbol of support for colonial rebellion from England.
[10] Though Commodore Hopkins flew the coiled snake “Don’t Tread on Me” from his flagship during the Continental Navy’s first expedition, January, 1776, it was on a yellow background; the snake was not position on thirteen stripes accepted by common knowledge. The first Navy flag, jack or ensign, was just the red and white stripes without any image printed over its surface.
[11] A large contrast from the modern Marine Corps where the average recruit is 18 years of age and height 5 inches or taller.
[12] Among Craig’s enlistees was a jeweler, baker, wool comber, miller, breeches maker, butcher, and several carpenters. Smith, pg. 14.
[13] However, it was rare for royal sailors to received twenty-four or more lashes at a time. During the 1700’s in the British Navy, the average number of lashes officers laid upon the back of their crew members was 19.5, prior to a court-martial. Severe penalties could lead to ‘flogging round the fleet,’ which could result in hundreds of lashes, at times leading to death.
[14] Smith, pg. 15.
[15] Ibid.
[16] As the war progressed and finding himself void of necessary troops as well as never having the time to train qualified troops for combat before they were dismissed from service, Washington pushed Congress to abandon one year enlistments for the war’s duration.
[17] From the Virginia Gazette received in dispatch from New Bern, NC on March 2, 1776.
[18] Commodore Esek Hopkins (1718-1802) was a Rhode Island trader who had sailed every corner of the world before skippering a privateer during the French and Indian War (Seven Years War). He had commanded slave ships under renowned Slave Trader, Rhode Islander Nicholas Brown (one of the founders of Brown University). At the start of the Revolution, he had been appointed brigadier general of all Rhode Island’s military forces on Oct., 4, 1775. On December 22, 1775, Congress appointed him Commander in Chief of the Continental Navy to protect American commerce. His first, mission was to sail his fleet to the Chesapeake Bay and rid Virginia of British shipping, then, if practical, sail along the Carolina coast ridding the region of British ship preying on American privateers and merchantmen.
[19] Tenders supported larger warships. They carried supplies and served as dispatch vesels.
[20] New Providence Island is the largest and main island of the Bahamas, acting as the then colony’s commercial and governmental hub. Nassau is located on its northeastern coast.
[21] Two days out from the Delaware Bay, the fleet ran into a raging storm during which the Hornet and Fly collided. The Hornet had to return to Philadelphia and the Fly slowed down to initiate repairs. When the Hornet docked, Marine Lt. John Martin Strobagh became the second marine to leave the service, resigning his commission for land based service.
[22] John Paul Jones, Life and Correspondence of John Paul tones, p. 35.
[23] In the fall of 1775, when Lord Dunmore asked British General for aid against an increasingly hostile Virginia militia, a company of the 14th stationed at St. Augustine East Florida was sent. They were defeated by Virginia militia under Colonel Woodford at the Battle of Great Bridge, December 9, 1775. This led to Lord Dunmore drawing all British forces onto his fleet off Norfolk.
[24] Royal Governor Montfort Browne (1735-1785) served as governor of West Florida (1766-1769) and the Bahamas from (1774 -1780). After he surrendered Fort Nassau and taken prisoner by American Commodore Hopkins, he was kept a prisoner in Connecticut until exchanged six months later. Browne remained with the British forces and raised a loyal provincial brigade called the Prince of Wales Loyal American Volunteers known at ‘Browne’s Corps.’
[25] Both forts were built by engineer Peter Henry Bruce of international fame.
[26] As recorded in the Andrew Doria’s logbooks.
[27] As reported by Governor Browne to Vice Admiral Clark and found in Captain Nicholas’ papers within the American Archives.
[28] Smith, pg. 53.