Battle of Rhode Island

The Battle of Rhode Island began on August 9, 1778 with an American siege of the British garrison at Newport, Rhode Island. It ending twenty days later on August 29^th with the Americans in full retreat and a British attack on their rear-guard. America and France’s first joint effort in the American Revolution had ended in shambles. It was a campaign that should have resulted in a resounding allied victory with the capture of yet another British army. But mother nature had thrown a wrench and a storm damaged the French fleet. As a result, the French chose not to do battle, but to nurse their bruised ships and sailed away. Without French support, entire regiments of American militiamen deserted for home. Whittled down and outnumbered more than two to one, the remaining militiamen and Continental regiments had no choice but to withdraw, leaving the British still entrenched in New England for several more months.

General Henry Clinton Leads Expeditions

Briti General Henry Clinton, soon after arriving in America on May 25, 1775, proved himself to be a royal pain in the arse to his superiors. When General William Howe, commander of British forces in America, sought a commander for an expedition to invade North Carolina in early 1776, he saw a perfect opportunity to get rid of Clinton. After the planned incursion into North Carolina flopped when the loyalist forces were decimated at the Battle of Moore’s Creek Bridge, February 27, 1776, Clinton and the British fleet sent to support him focused on Charlestown (present Charleston), South Carolina. This also proved a debacle when at the Battle of Fort Sullivan, June 28, 1776, the defenses at the entrance to the city harbor proved to be too solid a nut to crack. To General Howe’s dismay, Clinton soon showed up back under his direct command.

British Invade New York City and Newport, Rhode Island

British launched their invasion of New York City in August, 1776. After the successful defeat of the last American forces on Manhattan at the Battle of Fort Washington, November 16, 1776, the remnants of the American army were chased across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. This allowed an opportunity for General Howe to turn his attention to New England and once more rid himself of an irritating nuisance. He chose General Clinton to lead another expedition; this time to Newport, Rhode Island. On December 8, 1776, Clinton, with an invasion fleet of 71 vessels, successfully landed 7,100 British and Hessian troops on Aquidneck Island. He easily drove out American opposition, mainly state militia, and occupied Newport.

But General Howe’s reprieve from Clinton would not last long. Once the British garrison was established at Newport, Clinton left General Richard Prescott in command of the port along with several British and Hessian regiments, before returning to New York. Prescott would later be captured from his bed in a daring raid by Americans on July 10, 1777. Prescott was replaced with Bunker Hill man of the hour General Robert Pigot. Prescott would be exchanged for American General Charles Lee and returned to Rhode Island in time for the battle, but would play a subordinate role to General Pigot.

Like New York City, Boston, and Charleston, the Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island was an important sea port. General William Howe had sought to occupy Rhode Island in December 1776 for two reasons; to provide his brother, Admiral Richard ‘Black Dick’ Howe, an ice free winter anchorage for his ships, and as a hopeful staging point to retake Boston. Since the occupation of Newport began, the American militia with segments of Continental forces and the British garrison were at a standoff. In early 1777, former Connecticut delegate to Congress turned soldier, Major General Joseph Spencer, was put in charge of defenses in Rhode Island. He was ordered by General George Washington to launch an assault on Newport to retake the port.  However, poorly supplied and with limited manpower, Spencer was unable to do so.  In March of 1778, he had been removed. He would be replaced with New Hampshire lawyer General John Sullivan, who had performed reasonably well during the New York City campaigns.

France Declares War on England and Sends a Fleet to America

After British General “Johnny” Burgoyne surrendered his northern army at Saratoga, New York, October 17, 1777, France decided the time was right to enter the war on behalf of America. In truth, aid to America was just a sideshow. The French, by entering the war, saw an opportunity not only to weaken their centuries old rival, but for a land grab in the Caribbean. The hope was to regain lost territory handed over to the British at the conclusion of the Seven Year’s War, as well as enriching the nation’s treasury by reclaimed trade. The Caribbean, for both England and France, was the most profitable region of natural resources for trade of all the colonies. Therefore, even though France would sail her fleets across the Atlantic under the auspicious of aiding her new friend, her eye remained on the true prize that sat south off North America’s mainland. And General Washington knew this.

The alliance between France and the new United States was signed on February 6, 1778 and France announced war on England one month later. It had been agreed that the first test of the new alliance was to oust the British from Philadelphia, the nation’s capital, which had fallen to British troops on September 26, 1777. A French fleet under Admiral Charles Henri Hector Comte d’Estaing that included 12 ships-of-the-line, support vessels, and transports carrying 4,000 French infantry, set sail in April, 1778. Admiral d’Estaing’s orders were to blockade the Delaware River, trapping the British army at Philadelphia. Troops would be landed to assist Washington in his assault on the city. It would take three months before the fleet arrived off the North American coast which, by then, things had changed substantially.

Plans to Assault Philadelphia Switched to Rhode Island

By May of 1778, even before the French ships arrived, the Americans had planned a possible alternative to an attack on Philadelphia; this after intelligence indicated the British were most likely to abandon the city.  On June 18, 1778, the newly appointed Commander of British Forces in America, General Henry Clinton, departed Philadelphia for New York City, taking his 15,000 regulars with him. General Washington caught up with Clinton’s rear guard ten days later at Monmouth, New Jersey, resulting in the Battle of Monmouth, June 28^th. Considered an American victory by virtue of the Continental army in possession of the field of battle, Clinton was still able to finish his march to New York with most of his troops intact.

There was no further need for the French to help the Americans launch an assault against Philadelphia. Only two major British posts remained in America’s original thirteen colonies by the summer of 1778; New York City and Newport, Rhode Island. It was decided that when the fleet arrived, New York City would become the focus. When French ships appeared outside the Delaware River in early July, they were sent to New York to make arrangements for a unified siege. However, pilots informed Admiral d’Estaing that the city’s harbor was considered too shallow for the drafts of the massive 2^nd rate French warships of over ninety guns each. A siege of the city was scrapped. Washington and Congress knew that the French fleet and troops had to be used soon, or their admiral would resail for the Caribbean. Therefore, plans moved forward to assault the British at Newport, Rhode Island.

General Sullivan Faced the Same Problems as Spencer and Details Situation

After the 1776 British expedition, most of Rhode Island still remained in American control. The British held Aquidneck Island, that included Newport, and across the channel on Conanicut Island. But they failed to expand their occupation, and instead improved upon defenses on the islands. By early May, 1778, when General Sullivan arrived, the British were well dug in.  On the 3^rd, Sullivan produced a detailed report to General Washington and Congress on the situation. He touched upon the return of troop numbers, complaining that three regiment’s enlistments were up within days and what was left were basically remnants of an army writing, “We have not a man from Connecticut, and but part of two companies from Massachusetts Bay. Some few have arrived from New Hampshire and about half their quota are on the march.” He also included a summary of his enemy’s strength; “They have on the island and in the posts adjacent, four regiments of Hessians, and the Twenty-second, Forty-third, and Fifty-sixth British; making on the whole, 3,600…” His report included a company of 127 loyalists “composed of refugees and deserters, and commanded by one Whiteman [Colonel George Whiteman of the Loyal New Englanders].”

Sullivan also included British fortifications writing, “They have besides, a very strong work on Butt’s Hill, a small redoubt opposite Bristol Ferry, another at the entrance of our common ferry point, and two small works opposite Frogland Point…”  He continued by listing British shipping in the harbor penning, “There are seven vessels of war [British], and two galleys, stationed in the following manner, viz: The Kingfisher and two galleys, in the East Passage at Little Compton; in the main channel, the Flora and Juno; in the west channel, the Somerset: at the town, the Nonesuch, the Falcon, and a frigate, the name of which I have not learned…”

He then appealed for more men: “As the number of troops destined for this department will be so incompetent to defend it against a sudden attack, I think that the two State galleys, if properly fitted, would be of great advantage. …” Sullivan finished requesting that Congress send General John Stark to his posting as he needed two brigadiers to command for defense and possible assault on the British works. Meanwhile, Sullivan began logistical preparations for a possible attack on Newport, caching equipment and supplies along the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay and the Taunton River. This fell to British General Pigot’s attention who would take action.

British General Pigot Takes Actions. British Fleet Dispatched from England. Sullivan Informed Newport Would be Attacked.

British General Pigot’s loyalists kept him abreast of where the Americans were storing munitions and supplies. In the early morning hours of May 25^th, he sent a strong party of around 500 regulars up the bay. They landed and destroyed military supplies and plundered the towns of Bristol and Warren. Sullivan immediately pressured Congress by renewing appeals for more men as he had not enough for defense. After Pigot staged a second raid on Freetown (present-day Fall River, Massachusetts) on May 31^st. On June 19^th, Congress responded to Sullivan by instructing Washington to return the Rhode Island troops (1^st and 2^nd Continental Regiments) to their state. Also, the navy was instructed to prepare three galleys for defense.

The British were aware that the French had sailed a fleet for America in April, but it was not until early June that a fleet of 13 ships of the line left European waters in pursuit, under the command of Vice-Admiral John Byron, nicknamed ‘Foul Weather Byron.’ True to his name and luck, the British, like d’Estaing who took three months to cross due to storms, was also delayed by bad weather and did not reach New York City until mid-August.

When General Pigot in Newport learned that in early July, a French fleet had arrived off New York City, he began preparations for a possible joint attack by American and French forces. Stores were removed from the Newport wharves to a place of safety. New redoubts were thrown up. And the forts on Brenton’s Point, Goat Island, and Rose Island speedily rebuilt.

After the decision to forgo attacking New York City, Washington dispatched a letter to Sullivan on July 17^th, instructing him to call up 5,000 additional troops from the region. Sullivan received this letter on the 23^rd, and the next day, Colonel John Laurens of Washington’s staff arrived informing Sullivan that Newport was to be attacked. Laurens had ridden ahead of two brigades of Continental troops who were marching to Sullivan; one led by Brigadier General John Glover of Massachusetts and the other by General James Mitchell Varnum of Rhode Island; both would be under the command of the Marquis de Lafayette. So too, Major General Nathanael Greene, would arrive on July 27^th to lend his expertise in the assault on the British. At that time Sullivan had but 1,600 troops, but number was soon to be enlarged considerably.

French Fleet Sails for Newport; British Garrison Reacts and Reinforcements Sent

D’Estaing sailed his fleet from his position outside the New York harbor on July 22^nd. It comprised twelve ships of the line, four frigates, and a corvette. He initially sailed south before turning northeast toward Newport and arrived off Brenton’s ledge, below Newport at Point Judith on July 29^th.  The next day, General Sullivan went aboard the flagship Langnedoc and had a conference with the French admiral. It was agreed that two ships of the line, two frigates, and the corvette should take position so as to cut off the retreat of the enemy’s vessels lying in the bay. 

As this plan to hem in British ships in the bay became apparent to the British, the latter ran four of their frigates, the Lark, Orpheus, Juno, and Cerberus, ashore and burned them. Later, they destroyed other ships and a number of smaller vessels by burning or sinking the same to prevent them being taken by the French. Also, British troops on Conanicut Island and the rebuilt forts, including redoubts to the north of the city and at the ferries, were withdrawn to the city’s defenses. So too defenses to the north on Butt Hill.

While d’Estaing was still outside the New York Harbor, British intelligence among the Americans proved excellent. Judging that not New York, but the garrison at Rhode Island was under threat, General Clinton and Vice-Admiral Richard Howe dispatched a fleet of transports to Newport carrying 2,000 troops to reinforce the garrison. They sailed via the Long Island Sound to avoid being mauled by the French fleet. The troops had arrived before the French at Newport on July 15^th, raising the size of the garrison to more than 6,700 men.  The day after d’Estaing met with Sullivan on board his flagship, July 31^st, the French commander made his first move to jockey for the attack and sent his frigates into the Sakonnet River, the channel to the east of Aquidneck, and into the main channel leading to Newport.

American Force

When news of the French involvement spread across New England, it rallied support and militias began streaming into Rhode Island for the planned joint attack on British forces at Newport. Most were twenty and thirty day enlistments from Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and one militia regiment from Connecticut. However, muster took time and most of the militiamen, particularly those from New Hampshire, did not show up until the first week in August.  So too, most of the Continental troops marching north did not arrive until the opening days of August. Among the Continental regiments were three termed ‘Additional Continental Regiments.’ These were among sixteen additional regiments that Congress authorized late in 1776; assuming the name of the commanding officer. The following is a general list of both Continental and Militia Forces:

• Major General John Sullivan – Commanding American Forces
• General James Varnum’s Brigade – 1,037
  • 1^st Rhode Island Continental Regiment (African America)
  • 2^nd Rhode Island Continental Regiment
  • Colonel Henry Sherburne’s Additional Continental Reg. of Rhode Island and Conn.
• General John Glover’s Brigade – 1,131
  • 4^th Massachusetts Continental Regiment
  • 13^th Massachusetts Continental Regiment
• Colonel Henry Jackson’s Continental Additional Regiment from Massachusetts Detached
• 1^st Canadian Regiment commanded by James Livingston –  659
• Major General Nathanael Greene’s Brigade – 1,626
  • Webb’s Additional Continental Regiment – Colonel Samuel Webb did not lead as he was still on parole.
  • Colonel John Langdon’s Company of Light Horse Volunteers, New Hampshire
  • Colonel Nathaniel Peabody New Hampshire Militia Regiment
  • Colonel Enoch Hale 15^th New Hampshire Militia Regiment
  • Colonel Moses Nichols’ 5^th New Hampshire Militia Regiment
  • Colonel Stephen Evans 4^th New Hampshire Militia Regiment
• General Ezekiel Cornell’s Brigade – 1,719
  • Eight County Militia Regiments from Rhode Island
• General Solomon Lovell’s Brigade of Massachusetts Militia – 1,158
• General Jonathan Titcomb’s Brigade of Massachusetts Militia – 959
• General William West Rhode Island Reserves – 1,025
• Four Artillery Regiments – 810
• Total Number of American Troops – 10,124
• French Infantry (minus seamen and ships officers) – 4,000
• Total American/French Force – 14,124

British Forces

With the arrival of reinforcements on July 15^th, the following is a list of British forces:

• 22^nd Regiment of Foot
• 38^th Regiment of Foot
• 43^rd Regiment of Foot
• 54^th Regiment of Foot
• Four Hessian Regiments
  • Landgrave, Huyne, Ditforth, and Bunau
• Two Anspach Regiments
  • 1^st Anspach Volt Regiment
  • 2^nd Anspach Seybothen Regiment
• Hessian Chasseurs – Light Infantry
• King’s American Loyalist Regiment under Edmund Fanning
• Prince of Wales’ American Loyalist Regiment under Montfort Browne
• Loyal New Englanders Loyalist Regiment under George Wightman
• British and Hessian ship-based artillery
• British Marines
• Total Number of British Force – 6,700

American and French Plan

The British garrison at Newport had been stationed on islands separated from the mainland by Narragansett and Mount Hope Bays and the Sakonnet River. The main island, Aquidneck, is fifteen miles in length and of irregular width, the widest part around four miles across. Newport is situated at the southern end of the island facing both the bay and the Atlantic. The American and French plan of attack assumed that the British had maintained their original posts. In fact, once the French began to sail into the harbor, British General Pigot withdraw all island and northern redoubts to the city’s defenses.

Generals Greene and Lafayette had also met with General Sullivan and Admiral d’Estaing onboard the Frenchman’s flagship on July 30^th. Sullivan’s proposal, which was at first rejected by d’Estaing, suggested that the two forces attack simultaneously. The Americans would ferry over to Aquidneck Island’s northeastern shore from Tiverton. The French troops would offload and use Conanicut Island as a staging ground, capturing any British troops, then cross over to Aquidneck from the west, cutting off the British soldiers at Butts Hill on the northern portion of the island. The American plan was agreed upon and d’Estaing would spend the next nine days passing his ships into the main channel leading to Newport. By August 8^th, the bulk of the French fleet were positioned in Newport Harbor and all was ready.

Americans and French Cross onto Aquidneck Island. New York British Fleet Arrives

The American Continentals were mustered on August 6^th and began their march to Tiverton (Tivertown) from which they would embark by ferry to Aquidneck Island on the 9th. The militia continued to arrive and would soon be joining them.  On the morning of August 9, d’Estaing began disembarking some of his 4,000 troops onto nearby Conanicut Island. The same day, General Sullivan learned that Pigot had abandoned Butts Hill on the northern part of the island. Contrary to the agreement with d’Estaing, Sullivan ordered Greene and Varnum to row a contingent of troops across from Howland’s Ferry at Bristol to seize that high ground. Sullivan was concerned that the British might reoccupy it in strength. D’Estaing later approved of the action, but his initial reaction and that of some of his officers was disapproval. John Laurens wrote that the action “gave much umbrage to the French officers.”

Things were going as planned until a lookout on the French flagship Languedoc spotted sail on the horizon. The British fleet from New York City had arrived. When the French fleet departed and word arrived that their destination was Newport, Admiral Richard Howe began arrangements to sail north to do battle. Eight ships of the line including support vessels had been further delayed departing New York City due to contrary winds. By noon, August 9^th, they were gathering off the Newport Harbor. D’Estaing feared that if he continued to land troops and delay confronting the British Navy, they would further be reinforced and eventually gain a numerical advantage. He decided to halt the landing of French troops and reboard them. The next day, August 10^th, while Americans continued to ferry onto Aquidneck Island, d’Estaing sailed his fleet out to meet the British.

Nor’easter Damages Both Fleets, French Withdraw to Boston for Repairs

As the two fleets jockeyed for the weather gage prior to battle, a two-day nor’easter known as the ‘Great Storm’ blew in on August 11^th and scattered the ships, inflicting serious damage to both fleets. D’Estaing’s flagship was ravaged, losing her masts and most of her rigging. After the storm subsided somewhat, there were a couple of fierce encounters between single ships. On the 13^th, d’Estaing’s flagship Languedoc, rudderless and dismasted, suffered over a hundred casualties when she was raked (firing broadsides into the bow or stern of a ship whereas shot carries the length of the vessel, thereby causing the most damage) by the British fourth-rate, two decker 50 gun ship Renown. Another occurred with similar loss of life to the French ship Cesar. Like many of the French ships, she had been badly damaged by the storm. She was mauled when another British fourth-rate 50-gun man-of-war, Isis, caught up and raked her.

D’Estaing’s fleet regrouped off the Delaware while Howe’s vessels limped back to New York City. On the 11^th, while the French and British ships were being thrashed by the storm, Sullivan positioned his forces outside the formidable British redoubts without the aid of French infantry. The British defenses ran from Green End to Tonomy Hill to Coddington Cove. On the 15^th, he began siege operations by opening trenches towards the northeast of the British defenses. Throughout an exchange of cannon fire with the enemy ensued while waiting for the return of the French ships. On August 20^th, D’Estaing reappeared off Newport with a dozen of his battered fleet. He informed Sullivan that he was withdrawing to Boston for repairs. Sullivan and his officers were inflamed. General Greene wrote a complaint which Colonel Laurens termed ‘sensible and spirited.’ Sullivan was not so kind, penning a massive response using inflammatory language, calling d’Estaing’s decision “derogatory to the honor of France.” So too were Americans troops rankled by the French saying they “left us in a most rascally manner.”  

Sullivan tried to change d’Estaing’s mind by arguing that the British could be compelled to surrender in just one or two days with French help. D’Estaing would later write, “It was…difficult to persuade oneself that about six thousand men well entrenched and with a fort before which they had dug trenches could be taken either in twenty-four hours or in two days.”  The Fleet departed on August 22^nd. Two days later, Sullivan sent Lafayette to Boston to try and persuade the French admiral to return. The effort would prove fruitless.

Militias Leave for Home in Droves, Sullivan Decides to Retreat to North of Island

When the French left, so did most of the American militia. Over the next week they departed in a mass exodus that included entire regiments. Most of the militiamen had signed on for only twenty days and their enlistments were ending shortly. There was no thought of remaining for an extended siege, especially without the 4,000 French troops as an assurance of success. Sullivan’s force had dwindled down to two thirds of its original strength; barely more than the British and Hessian regulars facing them from behind formidable defenses. General Washington’s spy network in New York had alerted the American commander that British General Clinton was assembling a relief force for Newport. He related this news to Sullivan. With his forces greatly reduced and no sign of the French fleet returning, a council of war was convened on the evening of August 24^th.  At this meeting, Sullivan and his officers decided for an organized withdrawal to the northern part of the island, still hoping for French assistance to renew the siege.

British Fleet Arrives from England, Reinforcements Sent from New York, Americans Pull Back to the North and Defensive Position

By mid-August, Vice-Admiral John Byron arrived at New York to reinforce Admiral Howe’s fleet. Howe’s hastily repaired ships joined Byron’s battered fleet that had been delayed by the stormy passage and sailed out to try and catch d’Estaing before he was able to put into Boston. General Clinton’s organized force of 4,000 regulars sailed for Newport on August 26^th under Major General Charles Grey, who had commanded British forces at the Paoli Massacre, September 20, 1777. They would not arrive until after the August 29^th battle.

Decision made on the 24^th, the Americans began evacuating north from Newport. By the 28^th, most were in position to await the hopeful arrival of the French. The main portion of Sullivan’s army encamped on Butt’s Hill. Its right extended to the west and the left to the east road, with flanking and covering parties stretching toward the water on each side of the island; about two miles in length.

General Greene commanded the right wing, extending to the western shore to where the British abandoned a redoubt. This embankment would protect the Americans from flanking fire of any British ship sailing up the bay from Newport. Below Butt’s Hill, Greene positioned 3,200 troops, the two Rhode Island regiments and mainly militia from Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, along with Jackson’s Additional Continental Regiment.

The 1^st Rhode Island Continental Regiment, the African American Regiment, was positioned about a half mile in front of General Greene’s main posting on a long, gradual rise; Anthony’s Hill, where they formed a defense in front of the redoubt. This regiment was usually commanded by Colonel Christopher Greene, 3^rd cousin to Gen. Greene, however Christopher Greene had been given a brigade of Massachusetts and New Hampshire militia, with the command of the 1^st now under its second, Major Samuel Ward.

Command of the left wing was given to General Lafayette. However, Lafayette had been Boston trying to persuade the French to return and would not arrive until after the British attack and the Americans had evacuated the island; whereas he took command of the rear guard. Here General Glover would concentrate his forces behind a stone wall; similar to his defensive position he took during the Battle of Pelham Point, October 18, 1776.

Three miles south and in front of the main American position, on Windmill Hill, near a crossroad that joined the East and West Roads, Colonel James Livingston’s Canadian Regiment were posted with additional light corps on the East Road. Along this line, on the West Road, a second light corps was located commanded by Colonel Laurens and Major Silas Talbot. A picket was stationed in the rear of these troops.

Between the position of the main army that stretched east from Butt’s Hill were two other hills which would play a part in the battle. Two hundred and twenty foot Turkey Hill ran to the southeast along a dirt road. And the larger Quaker Hill, rising two hundred and seventy feet, was further southeast from Turkey Hill. Historian Christian McBurney describes this area which would be key to holding off the British attack, allowing the Americans to withdraw over Howland Ferry. He wrote: “Low rolling meadows interspersed with copses of woods, swamps, and thickets filled the ground in between. Holding this area would be the key to repelling a British attack here.”

Battle Sally in Two Divisions

British General Pigot discovered early in the morning of August 29^th that the Americans had completely abandoned their entrenchments opposite his defenses at Newport. It is believed that previously, on the 26^th, Pigot had learned of the American decision to retreat from deserters. He decided to harass and hasten that retreat. Two divisions, one British and the other German, sallied from the British defenses with a third corps held in reserve. Two roads led north up the island from Newport; west and east roads. Each division would advance up one of these two roads.

German Hessian Chasseurs (light infantry) and the two Anspach Regiments were ordered to march by the West Road which was held by the Canadians under Livingston. These were placed under the command of General Friedrich Wilhelm Lossberg.  The British would advance up the East Road held by Laurens and Talbot. Brigadier General Francis Smith commanded the 32rd and 22^nd British Regiments along with the flank companies (light infantry and grenadier companies – considered the best companies of a regiment) of the 38^th and 54^th Regiments. The battle was defined by what occurred along each of these two roads; West Road and the American Right flank under General Greene, East Road and American Left Flank led by General Glover. By 7:30 AM, both British divisions had made contact with American pickets.

British Regulars Attack Along the East Road and American Left

A crossroads ran between the East and West Roads near the Gibbs House. Colonel Livingstone set his Canadians in a defensive line just north of this at a windmill south of Quaker Hill. By the time British General Smith’s men reached this crossroads, the clash on the American Right between Colonel Lauren’s Continentals and attacking Germans had heated up. Colonel Campbells of the 22^nd Regiment came to the crossroads and perhaps hearing the firing off to his left, may have assumed the Germans required assistance and turned his regiment along this road. At that moment, Livingston’s men fired a devastating volley into the flank of Campbell’s men, killing and wounding many and forcing them to fall back. This in turn stalled Smith’s advance.

Pigot ordered up his reserve under General Richard Prescott, who had been recently exchanged and returned to Newport. The 54^th Regiment along with the loyalist Prince of Wales’ American Regiment to reinforce Smith. With the added strength, Smith renewed the attack, sending the 22^nd, 43^rd, and flank companies against Livingstone’s left flank. At that point, Livingston had been reinforced with Colonel Edward Wigglesworth’s 13 Massachusetts Regiment. However, the British pushed forward and drove Livingston and Wigglesworth’s men back to Quaker Hill.

When a reinforcing Hessian regiment threatened to outflank the right of Quaker Hill and cut the Americans off, the hill was abandoned and the Americans retreated to Glover’s lines. In hot pursuit, Smith came up against Glover’s men and launched a probing attack. It was quickly repulsed by the Americans. Realizing the strength of Glover’s position behind stone walls, Smith decided against a major assault and pulled back. This ended the fighting on the American left.

Germans Attack Along the West Road and Pigot Hopes to Turn the American Right

Colonel Laurens’ advance corps of Continentals came up against Lossberg’s Germans. They didn’t fare as well as Livingston’s Canadians first did against British regulars. Shortly after dawn, Hessian ‘Chasseurs’ light infantry under Captain Frederick von der Malsburg of the von Ditfurth Regiment came up against 100 men under Major Talbot, in a defensive position behind stone walls at the intersection of West and Union Street. Talbot’s volley drove the Hessians back, but they regrouped and in turn attacked, driving Talbot back. Colonel Laurens men were stationed behind stone walls south of the Redwood House. The Germans came up against them by 7:30 and so too, steadily drove the Americans back, three miles to the base of Turkey Hill, where they took positions behind hedges and stone walls.

By 8:30, Quaker Hill to the American left had been taken. The Hessian chasseurs pressed the attack on Lauren’s position before Turkey Hill, which Sullivan had reinforced with another regiment. They were joined by the Huyne Hessian Regiment and Colonel Fanning’s Loyalist Regiment. Lossberg’s men were able to push Laurens and Talbot back and storm Turkey Hill, driving the defenders back onto General Greene’s wing. At that stage, Lossberg brought up his field artillery and began a cannonade of Greene’s lines. It was now 10 AM and British warships had entered the fray to turn their cannon on the Americans.

With Glover on the left, holding firm before British regulars, Pigot decided to try and turn the American right. He focused on the redoubt at the far right, in an attempt to take it and sweep down on the American line, causing it to collapse. The sixth rate HMS Sphynx, an armed merchantman, HMS Vigilant, and a row galley, HMS Spitfire Galley, had sailed the passage between Aquidneck Island and Prudence Island. Along with German field artillery, they added the weight of their cannon and commenced a bombardment of Greene’s troops on the far-right flank. In the midst of this carnage, one half mile before the redoubt on Anthony’s Hill, the 1^st Rhode Island African American Regiment crouched down in scorched grass in a defensive line, staring out to the distant hills and valley before them. A valley now filled with 1,500 German troops, ordered to drive all American resistance back and turn the American right. If successful, it would result in a total British victory and disastrous defeat for the Americans, leaving Sullivan’s men no escape from the island with certain surrender.

Hessians Assault Rhode Island Continentals Three Times, Black Regiment Holds Firm

The Rhode Island 1^st, African American Regiment, proved their mettle that day. They never relinquished an inch of ground before repeated assaults, becoming the bedrock of the American position in front of a redoubt that had to be held at all costs. Greene was aware of the stakes on his far right and sent the 2^nd Rhode Island under Israel Angell forward to reinforce Major Ward’s African Americans.

Hessians regiments were hurled forward up the hill in a massive bayonet charge against Major Ward’s stalwart 1^st Rhode Island ‘Black’ Regiment. As the Germans massed before them in a crazed charge, the Rhode Islanders not only held their position, but with the aid of the 2^nd Rhode Island, charged down the hill and drove the Hessians back in great confusion. The field commander of the Hessians, Captain Malsburg, later wrote in his journal, recalling that his men, “…now rushed up the hill under heavy fire in order to take the redoubt. Here they experienced a more obstinate resistance than they expected. They found large bodies of troops behind the works and at its sides, chiefly wild looking men in their shirt sleeves, and among them many Negroes.”

Historian Christian McBurney has speculated that these ‘wild men in shirt sleeves,’ as reported by Malsburg, had most likely abandoned their heavy coats once the battle ensued. Having camped for days under soaking rains, then laboring in high heat and humidity while preparing defenses for the expected battle, they might well have cast aside hats and tunics to fight. As historian Robert Geake wrote, “But to the British [and Germans], and more especially to the Continentals, the [African American] regiment exposed themselves more openly as men of color, fighting side by side with them.”

Three times, the Hessians had attacked. Each time they were repulsed and driven back and pursued by the Americans, only to regroup and try again to pierce the ‘stone wall’ defense offered by the Rhode Islanders.  Nineteenth century Rhode Island Governor and US Senator and historian Samuel Greene Arnold wrote of the 1^st Rhode Island’s performance that day, “Headed by their major, Samuel Ward, and posted in a valley…three times drove back the Hessians, who strove in vain to dislodge them.” There was no mention that Ward commanded a black regiment. As with 19^th century and right up to later 20^th century historical texts and oratorical that dealt with the Battle of Rhode Island, any praise towards those who held the American right that day, and in effect prevented an American disaster, did not include the one most important fact; many of those who bravely fought were African Americans.

As they had done at the battle of Long Island, it was reported that while falling back, the Germans bayoneted wounded Americans where they lay. The British ships firing upon the Americans were eventually silenced. Greene’s artillery and the American battery at Bristol Neck concentrated their fire on the three vessels and finally drove them off.

Lossberg effected his final attack on Greene’s position at 2 PM without success. Greene saw an opportunity to turn the Hessian’s right flank and sent 1,500 men forward to counterattack; Angell’s 2^nd Rhode Island,  General Lovell’s Brigade of Massachusetts militia, and Livingston’s Canadians who had already proven themselves that day on the left. By now Lossberg was heavily outnumbered and withdrew back to the summit of Turkey Hill. The Americans advanced and by 3 PM, held a stone wall three hundred paces from the foot of Turkey Hill. There the two forces remained staring across the divide. As the skies darkened, one last attempt by the Americans tried to cut off the Hessians on their left flank. But Huyne’s Hessians and Fanning’s Loyalists would not have it and drove the Americans off. This ended the fight on the American right and concluded the battle.

Casualties

The British suffered 260 casualties, of whom 128 were German. Of this number, 38 had been killed outright with many of the wounded later perishing from their injuries. For the Americans, thirty were killed in action with more than a hundred wounded. Major Ward of the 1^st Rhode Island later wrote of American losses, “Our loss was not very great…it has not been ascertained yet…Several officers fell, and several are badly wounded. I am so happy as to have only one captain slightly wounded in the hand. I believe a couple of the blacks were killed, and four or five wounded, nut none badly.” He also wrote of his ‘black’ troops, “…our picquets and the light corps engaged their [Hessian] advance, and fought them with bravery.”  

Afterward

Sullivan held his position on the northern shore of Aquidneck Island for another day as the two sides eyed each other. Convinced that there would be no French aid, plus British troops were on the way from New York, Sullivan withdrew his force from the island on August 31^st. This proved only one day ahead of General Grey’s 4,000 regular reinforcements.

Newport and Aquidneck Island would remain in British hands for fourteen more months. They finally departed Rhode Island for New York City on October 25, 1779, to either redeploy to the city, or take part in General Clinton’s planned invasion of the south that was launched in December, 1779.  Thousands of British regulars had basically wasted three years hemmed in at Narragansett Bay, waiting for an invasion of Boston that never materialized.  

During the British occupation, the population of Rhode Island had fallen to half its pre-war statis. Not that the mainland was physical occupied by British troops, but that the closure of the port had devastated the local economy, forcing many to leave the state to seek work and opportunities elsewhere. The war would move south after this, but for a few devastating raids by British incursions along the coast, mainly in Connecticut and Maine.

Colonel Christopher Greene would resume command of the 1st Rhode Island after the battle. However, Lt. Colonel Jeremiah Olney would lead the regiment after Colonel Greene was killed. Greene and Major Ebenezer Flagg, along with six black soldiers, and two others who later died of their wounds, were killed on May 14, 1781, when a group of loyalist insurgents, known as the Royal Refugee Corps under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James De Lancey, surrounded Greene’s headquarters on the Croton River in Westchester County, just north of New York City. From one account of the attack, “his body was found in the woods, about a mile distant from his tent, cut, and mangled in the most shocking way.

At Yorktown, the African American regiment under Olney would spearhead the storming of Redoubt 10, resulting in British General Cornwallis surrendering his army within days. During the Yorktown campaign, the French had commented that the 1st Rhode Islanders were the finest looking troops of all the American regiments.

As for the French allies, Admiral D’Estaing had been biting at the bit to sail for the West Indies. He finished repairs to his fleet and left Boston on November 4, 1778, with a hateful fanfare from angered Americans. By then, the French had already begun to reclaim their lost Caribbean Islands, one of their main reasons for entering the war on the side of the new United States. Dominica fell on September 7, 1778. The American fleet would remain in the Caribbean, securing French interests. D’Estaing would make only one more showing in America. His fleet, including French and Haitian ‘Black’ troops, participated in a joint Franco/American failed attempt to take Savannah, Georgia, September 23 – October 18, 1779. Shortly after, the admiral sailing his fleet back to France.

Not until the arrival of Admiral Charles d’Arsac de Ternay’s fleet delivering French troops at Newport in May, 1780, would the French take seriously America’s hopes. They would remain and aid Washington’s troops, battling the British navy to help secure British General Charles Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, October 19, 1781, which effectively ended the war.

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RESOURCE

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