December 1782 and the roar of cannon and crash of massed muskets were silenced. After seven years of war, opposing armies in America watched and waited for peace. But a civil war still raged. Splintered between rebellious patriots and loyal kings’ men, causes had morphed into hatred with vengeance the driving force. Before the doors to the American Revolution were finally shut, smaller acts of violence continued to end and scar lives; the Battle of Cedar Bridge, New Jersey, December 27, 1782, was the largest of the last. A ‘banditti’ of loyalists led by demonized Captain John Bacon were confronted by a patriot militia led by Captain Richard Shreve; considered a patriot victory. At the height of battle, local kings’ men came to their aid, allowing Bacon and many of his men to escape. According to lore, in retribution, several local loyalists were hanged, but most likely they were jailed. Bacon was caught and murdered a few months later, literally days before word of the Paris Peace Accords, signed in February 1783, reached America. By then, his bloodied and decomposed body had been paraded along village streets like a trophy of war.
Early historical author Benjamin J. Lossing[1] claimed that the final engagement of the American Revolution was fought on September 11, 1782, in Wheeling, West Virginia.[2] Mark M. Boatner III[3] gave the honor to a skirmish on Johns Island, South Carolina, on November 4, 1782.[4] The Skirmish at Cedar Bridge supersedes these other dates and merits recognition as the last battle of the American Revolution.[5]
Background
British authorities in New York City recruited Partisans Regiments in New York and New Jersey; loyalists trained and equipped like regular redcoats. So too, Tory raiding parties using guerrilla tactics were assembled and equipped; noted was the Black Brigade, six hundred strong at times, white and black, led by former slave Colonel Tye.[6] From the start of hostilities, Royal Governor William Franklin,[7] son of Benjamin Franklin, authorized Loyalist supporters to form militia groups to fight against the patriot rebels. He organized numerous Boards of Associated Loyalists that sprang up around New Jersey. One such infamous band appeared in the New Jersey pinelands labeled Pine Robbers, later called Refugees; hit-and-run raiders who financed their operations through war-time plunder. Franklin chose its leader, Tory Captain John Bacon,[8] who soon became one of the most despised loyalist ‘banditti’ of the war.
History is fuzzy concerning Bacon’s infamy, tainted by the lore of the New Jersey Pine Barrens. He was either a loyal British subject dedicated to preserving King’s Rule in America, or a hardened criminal and highwayman, taking advantage of the tumultuous times to pillage and plunder. His men were well acquainted with county roads and paths, including hidden cabins and caves tucked within woods and swamps. Bacon targeted rebel militiamen of southern coastal Monmouth County, between Cedar Creek and Tuckerton,[9] who in turn vilified his actions. Considered outlaws by patriot communities and American military, he was a hero to many New Jersey residents who remained loyal to the crown. Among Bacon’s exploits were the notorious killing of Lt. Joshua Studson[10] of Toms River, December 1, 1780, and a skirmish with the Manahawkin Militia[11] on December 31, 1781.[12] But the worst atrocity was yet to come.
After the Long Beach Island Massacre, October 26, 1782, New Jersey patriots labeled Captain Bacon a bloodthirsty murderer. The rebel privateer Alligator, captained by Andrew Steelman of Cape May, had captured a British cutter from Ostend heading for St. Thomas. The ship was driven off course and ran aground on Barnegat Shoals. Steelman and his crew labored all day and into the night to unload ship’s cargo onto Long Beach. When done, the exhausted crew lay down among the dunes to snatch a few hours’ sleep, failing to post sentries.
Meanwhile, Bacon got wind of Captain Steelman’s activities and with forty followers, crossed over from the mainland. In the early morning hours of the 26th, they crept up on the privateers and viciously hacked them to death where they slept. Those who rose to the clamor tried to escape and were run down and butchered. Only five somehow managed to get away. Captain Steelman’s body was among twenty rebel crew whose mangled bodies lay amidst the dunes.[13] Bacon sailed to British occupied New York City and sold the captured rebel privateer Alligator. Soon after he returned to his base of operations at Little Egg Harbor to resume pillaging and raiding rebel shipping. Towards the end of December, 1782, New Jersey Governor William Livingston placed a £50 reward on Bacon’s head. With nearly five years annual salary for the average worker up for grabs, Bacon’s days proved to be numbered.
Battle
Several versions of what happened on December 27, 1782 can be boiled down to two: the Popular Account, a retelling of events over generations and suspect to fabricated embellishments, and the Recorded Evidence. Among the latter are brief records in pension reports, a letter to New Jersey Governor Livingston by participant Colonel Israel Shreve, and a more detailed account in two newspapers; a shared rebel report and a loyalist publication.
Two rebel newspapers shared reports: The New Jersey Gazette’s[14] January 8, 1783 publication, and The New Jersey Journal’s[15] January 15, 1783 account. These two gave the most credible evidence of events. The Tory newspaper published in British held New York City, The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury,[16] January 13, 1783, supplied additional information, though in Captain Bacon’s favor. Listed are the popular version followed by the Evidenced reports:
Popular Account: By late December 1782, Bacon’s hideout was reported to be in the Cedar Creek wetlands on the coast just east of Manahawkin. On Christmas Day, militia Captain Richard Shreve of Burlington joined Captain Edward Thomas of Mansfield to capture the despised loyalist; forty-five miles to Manahawkin.[17] After a couple of luckless days combing the marshes and nearby settlements, they gave up seeking the ‘infernal gang’ and headed back toward Burlington. About fifteen miles west of Manahawkin, along the road to Camden, they decided to rest at the Cedar Bridge Tavern.[18] At this stage there are three variations that erupted in gunfire.
- Bacon’s men had stopped at the Cedar Bridge Tavern for some food. When he heard the militia was near, he knew there was no time to escape and set up a barricade across the Cedar Bridge. Once the militia arrived, a firefight broke out.
- Captain Shreve and his men had stopped at the Cedar Bridge Tavern for refreshments. Bacon was approaching the tavern when he realized the militia were nearby and immediately set up a barricade at the bridge.
- The most romantic version and stuff of Hollywood B movies places Bacon and his men at the tavern when Shreve’s militia shows up. Both parties had been served refreshments when they suddenly discovered each other. All hell broke out as Bacon’s men shot out the door to the bridge where they threw up a quick barricade to make a stand.
Bacon’s men stood firm in the sustained firefight that lasted for quite a while. The rebel militia pressed hard and started to gain the upper hand. When it appeared, the refugees would be overtaken, shots exploded from another direction. A group of local loyalists had arrived to assist Bacon and his embattled men. In the ensuing confusion, Bacon and his followers escaped. The loyalists suffered one killed, Ichabod Johnson, with Bacon and three others wounded. The rebels had one killed, William Cook Jr, and one wounded, who later died of his injuries. Horses on both sides were reported wounded. Afterwards, several of the locals who aided Bacon were jailed; a few hanged.
Recorded Evidence: The Gazette and Journal shared reports listed patriot militia commanders as Captains Richard Shreve and Edward Thomas with Captain John Bacon leading Tory raiders. Most accounts stated the incident occurred on Friday, December 27, 1782.[19] Benjamin Shreve, father of Capt. Richard Shreve, who accompanied his son in the pursuit, gave the date as Dec. 26th. Capt. Shreve had six light horsemen and twenty on foot.[20] Thomas’ numbers are not given. There is no evidence that prior to the action, patriot militiamen spent a couple of luckless days scouring the region seeking Bacon prior to the action. They did so several days after the battle, hunting down Bacon’s men who had escaped. Newspaper accounts indicated the combatants met while traversing the road. The Journal specifically wrote that the ‘refugees’ had the advantageous position on the south side of the bridge, indicating the patriot militia ran into the loyalists while in route to Manahawkin. As to the loyalists preparing a barricade at the bridge, neither paper gave evidence of this; perhaps an assumption since the loyalists were reported to have an advantageous position. There is also no mention in the papers of either party partaking in refreshments prior to the battle at the local tavern nearby the bridge. But Colonel Isreal Shreve,[21] brother to Capt. Shreve, wrote that “While refreshing at a tavern, Bacon and his party appeared at the bridge.”[22]
Discovering Bacon and his men at the bridge, Captain Shreve charged, but accounts indicated they pulled back or did not get far as Bacon command set up a fierce fire. The papers reasoned the loyalists’ held firm because “several of them having been guilty of such enormous crimes as to have no expectation of mercy should they surrender.”[23] Journals simply stated the battle lasted a considerable time; however, rebel pensioner William Newberry more specifically recalled that “the skirmish lasted about two or three hours…”[24] Most historians record that Bacon’s men were about to fold under the patriot militiamen’s relentless attack when the rebels were “unexpectedly fired on from a party of the inhabitants near that place, who had suddenly come to BACON’s assistance.”[25] The sudden fire from another direction by local loyalists thus caused confusion among the patriot militiamen, allowing Bacon and his men to escape. But this account of local loyalist intervention coming to the aid of Bacon’s men at a critical moment in the battle is only present in rebel newspapers, not backed up by primary witnesses. Rebel militiaman William Newberry indicated the reason the skirmish ended with Bacon’s men escaping was not caused by aid from local Tories, but by darkness, writing “…and night came on, so that the refugees got to go to their boats.”[26]
Historical texts and internet articles parrot that at the conclusion of the skirmish, as retribution for aiding Bacon’s men during the battle, local residents were arrested. Some accounts report several loyalists were hanged. There is no evidence to support this, not in newspaper accounts nor pension reports. There are no reports of hangings. As to prisoners, the New Jersey Journal is not specific writing “The militia are still in pursuit of the refugees, and having taking seven of the inhabitants prisoners who were with BACON in the action at the bridge, and are now in Burlington gaol, some of whom have confessed the fact…”[27] This is in reference to the pursuit of Bacon’s men after the battle, some of whom were inhabitants in the region. Pension reports indicate prisoners were captured and taken to Burlington, New Jersey, for trial. But there is no statement that these men were townspeople who came to the aid of Bacon’s men on the bridge, but were suspected raiders and ‘pine robbers’ rounded up in the days following the skirmish. In William Potts pension interview[28] he recorded that they had returned to the Manahawkin region after transporting their dead and wounded home to Burlington. He wrote, “We took about twenty of the disaffected (not in arms) prisoner, and lodged them all in jail at Burlington for trial.”[29]
Casualties. A consensus of accounts indicated that the patriots suffered one dead and four wounded. Benjamin Shreve, father of Capt. Richard Shreve and Col. Israel Shreve, witnessed during his pension application that “This affirmant was engaged in the Battle of Cedar Creek…in which battle William Cook was killed and Robert Reckless mortally wounded, of which wound he died on 8th day of January 1783. This affirmant had his horse wounded in the neck.”[30] William Sutton stated on his pension application that “Thomas Salter, Thomas Cook[e], and Samuel Beakes and others from the militia were wounded.”[31]William Potts wrote that he and several others had remained in the area caring for the wounded and after Reckless had died on the 8th, returned to Burlington before heading back to the coast to search for members of Bacon’s gang. The Journal and Gazette listed only William Cook and Robert Reckless as rebel casualties. Of loyalists, Bacon’s right-hand man was killed early on with four wounded that included Bacon. The Journal recorded, “Ichabod JOHNSON (for whom government has offered a reward of £25) was killed on the spot: BACON, and three more of the party wounded.”
Loyalist account. Bacon escaped to British held New York City where newspapers printed his version of his victory. The loyalist tribunal, The New-York Gazette and the Weekly Mercury, printed on January 13, 1783 in British occupied New York City, offered a different outcome of events, giving Bacon the victory with an exaggerated number of rebel casualties. Of interest is a reasoning for rebel pursuit that precluded the battle:
“Captain BACON, of the Black-Joke whale-boat, with six men, who left this place about the 20th of November last, retook, in little Egg-harbour Bay, the sloop – then in the possession of Capt. Badcock, and one from Philadelphia said to have been bound for Halifax; but the ice stopping him in the mouth of the inlet from bringing her off, was obliged to abandon her (having lost his Boat) and taken to the shore. Col. Shreeves being informed of this circumstance, dispatched a party of 20 men, seven on horses, and an officer, in quest of Captain BACON and his party, who were by that time reinforced by six of General BURGOYNE’s soldiers, and being apprized of the enemy’s design, did not much fear the number. On the 24th ult. both parties met at Cedar-Creek-Bridge; the enemy, in three different attempts to charge Captain BACON’s party, killed Mr. JOHNSON, (a refugee) wounded the Captain and two of the soldiers slightly. The other eight, not expecting any great civilities from their enemies, were determined not to be taken prisoners, and instantly charged both horse and foot, who seeing them desperate and determined, retreated, but not without loss, three horsemen and their horses, and four footmen, killed; three horsemen and six footmen badly wounded. William Cook, who commanded the horse, was among the dead. Capt. BACON’s party arrived in this city on Saturday last, with several trophies of their victory.”[32]
Aftermath
John Bacon Murdered. By March of 1783, rumors swept the colonies that a peace agreement would soon be signed. Three months after the battle, a few days before word reached the region that the peace agreement was concluded in Paris and the war was over, Bacon was tracked down and killed. Bacon had returned to the Little Egg Harbor and Manahawkin region. There were no reports he resumed his attacks on rebel homes or shipping; however, on March 31, 1783, Bacon was spotted scavenging a shipwreck. Word reached Capt. Shreve’s Burlington County militia and several members prepared to go after Bacon.
Most accounts of John Bacon’s demise are based on a presentation by Dr. George F. Fort to the New Jersey Historical Society in 1846. He based his work on an interview with Charles Stewart of Cream Ridge, New Jersey, who was a son of American militia Capt. John Stewart of Arneytown (Pemberton) in Burlington County. Accordingly, Captain Stewart, along with five men, including Joel Cook, brother of William Cook who was killed at Cedar Creek Bridge, rode toward Manahawkin, and received a report that Bacon might be found at a public house owned by William Rose near West Creek on the Shore Road a few miles north of Little Egg Harbor at Clamtown (Tuckerton).[33]
Thomas Farmer used Fort’s presentation to fill in gaps of Bacon’s death in his text The Forgotten Years: From Yorktown to Paris; stated to be an eyewitness accounts by Stewart and Cook. Basically, on April 3, 1783, the rebels led by Captain Stewart approached the tavern. Stewart and Cook looked through a window and saw Bacon inside with a musket between his legs. Captain Stewart burst through the front door and confronted Bacon. In the scuffle, Stewart knocked him to the floor, whereupon Bacon surrendered, calling for quarter. Stewart held onto Bacon and called out to Cook for help. Cook entered and, seeing the man who was responsible to the death of his brother, bayoneted Bacon in the back. Bacon’s limp body collapsed to the floor. Cook left to summon the others while Stewart stood over the body. Bacon suddenly got to his feet and shoved past Stewart. Accordingly, Stewart threw a table in front of Bacon to prevent him from escaping and the two scuffled again. Bacon got to his feet and tried to escape as Stewart picked himself off the floor and fired his musket, the bullet instantly killing Bacon. The same bullet that passed through Bacon also wounded Cook, either while outside or just entering the tavern. Stewart later reported that Bacon was killed while trying to resist arrest.
The despised leader of the Pine Robbers was laid in a wagon. Bacon’s carcass was carted several days over fifty miles of dusty roads through open country towards Jacobstown, Burlington County. The badly decomposing body with head dangling out over the end of the wagon was paraded through several towns along the way.[34] It was decided to bury Bacon’s body outside consecrated ground under a crossroads of modern Pemberton, New Jersey. Several accounts state a family member intervened requesting he receive a proper burial; either Bacon’s grieving wife, mother, or brother. Bacon was subsequently buried in an unmarked grave at a Quaker cemetery; today’s Upper Freehold Friends Burying Ground, Arneytown, Monmouth County, New Jersey. Bacon left behind a wife and two children in Pemberton, New Jersey.
Reward Money. Governor William Livingston had previously issued bounties for the capture of Bacon and Ichabod Johnson (killed at Cedar Creek in December). But the Burlington militia had killed them, rather than captured them, so the militia were ineligible for the bounties. On June 9, Cornet John Brown and Captain Richard Shreve petitioned the New Jersey legislature to allow them and their party to collect their reward offered for the capture of John Bacon and Ichabod Johnson. Two days later, the legislature voted them the reward of Shreve £25 and Brown £50:
Whereupon, Resolved, that the Treasurer of the State be directed to pay unto Captain Richard Shreve, of the County of Burlington, the Sum of Twenty-five Pounds, in consequence of His Excellency’s proclamation, being for the use of himself and the party of men that assisted him in securing Ichabod Johnson…to John Brown Cornet of Horse, of the said County, the Sum of Fifty Pounds, in consequence of said proclamation of His Excellency, being for the Use of himself and the Party of Men that assisted in securing John Bacon…[35]
If you would like to read more about the conflict between Loyalists and Patriots and the American Revolution in New Jersey, we Recommend the Following:
Of Similar Interest on Revolutionary War Journal
Reference
Adelberg, Michael. “Pine Robbers Defeat Militia at Cedar Creek.” Monmouth County Historical Association.
Farmer, Thomas P. & Cohoon, Dana A. “The Skirmish at Cedar Bridge.” The Forgotten Years: From Yorktown to Paris 1781-1783. 2007: Ocean County Cultural & Heritage Commission, Lakewood, NJ.
Fowler, David Joseph. Egregious Villains, Wood Rangers, and London Traders: The Pine Robber Phenomenon in New Jersey During the Revolutionary War. 1987: Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
George F. Fort, MD, “An account of the capture and death of the refugee John Bacon,” Proceeding of the New Jersey Historical Society, vol. I, 1845-1846 (Newark, NJ: Daily Advertiser, 1847), 151-154.
Hart, Timothy. “Smoke and Fire News: August 2002 Article.”
“John Bacon Full Biography.” Crossroads of the American Revolution.
“Manahawkin Skirmish” Revolutionary War New Jersey. Field guide to New Jersey’s Historical Sites.
Manning, Jack. “The Battle of Cedar Bridge is Fought.” Dec. 27, 2022. American 250 SAR Daily History.
On-line Institute for Advanced Loyalist Studies. “Skirmish at Cedar Creek New Jersey”
Pierce, Arthur Dudley. Smugglers’ Woods: Jaunts and Journeys in Colonial and Revolutionary New Jersey. 1960: Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ.
Salter, Edwin & Beekman, George C. Old Times in Old Monmouth – Historical Reminiscences of Old Monmouth County, New Jersey. 1887: Freehold, New Jersey.
Endnotes
[1] Benjamin Lossing’s The Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution, 1860.
[2] Second Siege of Fort Henry, September 11-13, 1782. Two hundred and fifty Native Americans along with forty Butler Rangers attacked settlers defending Fort Henry, present day Wheeling, West Virginia. The British force attacked three times without success before giving up and retreating. This fight was famous for Betty Zane’s run to retrieve much needed ammunition for the fort’s defense.
[3] Mark M. Boatner III’s Encyclopedia of the American Revolution, 1974.
[4] November 4, 1782, Johns Island, South Carolina, near Charleston, South Carolina, a patriot force defeated a British force, aiding in the British evacuation of Charleston.
[5] Hart.
[6] In 1775, Colonel Tye (Titus Cornelius) escaped his owner in Monmouth County, NJ and joined Virginia’s Royal Governor Lord Dunmore’s Ethiopian Brigade. He was with Lord Dunmore when the former Governor sailed to New York City in 1776. Titus was recruited to form a band of guerrilla fighters that included both white loyalists and former slaves. Titus died from a wound two days after a Sept. 1, 1780 raid.
[7] Royal Governor William Franklin, extra-marital son of Benjamin Franklin (1730-1813),was appointed Royal Governor of New Jersey in 1763. Relationships were already strained between the two as William did not inform his father of the appointment. As conditions worsened in America leading towards war, the father/son relationship worsened to the breaking point as Benjamin became a leading patriot and William remained a devout loyalist to the crown. Governor Franklin was arrested in January, 1776 and spent two years in confinement in Connecticut under extremely harsh conditions; his father did nothing to assist his son. William was exchanged in 1778 and moved to British occupied New York City. After his treatment during captivity, and the death of his wife Elizabeth Downes while he was imprisoned, William become one of America’s greatest enemies during the war. From 1778 until his departure in 1782, Franklin became the acknowledged leader of the American loyalists, for whom he struggled to secure aid. He also built up an unofficial yet active spy network, aiding in the assignation of leading patriots in New Jersey; in 1779, he knew of Benedict Arnold turning traitor in 1780. He left American in 1782, never to return nor contact his father.
[8] Manning.
[9] Also known then as Clamtown, Tuckerton was the principal village on Little Egg Harbor, NJ, near present day Atlantic City.
[10] Lt. Studson was an American privateer who frequently attacked British shipping along the New Jersey Coast, raking in a small fortune though the sale of ships and merchandise. He was targeted by loyalists and on December 1, 1780, while attempted to board a London Trader ship, Bacon, aboard ship, shot and killed him at close range.
[11] The Manahawkin Skirmish, December 30-31, 1781. Patriot militia of Manahawkin got word that Bacon and his band would ride through town on the 30th. Around 20 militiamen prepared to defend the town. When Bacon did not show, many went to sleep leaving sentries. When Bacon’s men of around 40 strong appeared, the sentries warned the militia. Before the militia could form, they were fired upon, killing one, Lines Pangborn, and wounding another. Bacon rode off, but spent the next several months in the area raiding and pillaging local farms.
[12] Some accounts state the skirmish at Manahawkin occurred on December 3, 1780.
[13] Most accounts state 20 crew members died. Some list the number of rebel fatalities, such as Manning and Hart, as 30.
[14] New Jersey Gazette was a rebel newspaper started by Isaac Collins in 1777.
[15] New Jersey Journal was a rebel newspaper started by Shepard Kollock, establishing his press in Chatham in 1779.
[16] Tory newspaper New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury was started by Hugh Gaine in the 1750’s as the New York Gazette. At first Gaine was a stout patriot. Though more conservative as the country led towards war, he remained in the rebellious camp, fleeing NY city in 1776 with the British occupation. But not finding advertisers in New Jersey for his struggling newspaper, and running out of money, he returned to New York City under the British and began publishing the Gazette with the addition of Weekly Mercury – under the watchful eye of British editors; first Ambrose Serle and later the firebrand Tory James Rivington, becoming the latter’s propaganda servant. Accused a traitor, Gaine was able to once more enhance rebellion after the British abandoned New York. He remained in America and embraced the new United States. Gaine republished his paper and with other financial investments, ended his days a wealthy man.
[17] Manahawkin, then as now, is just inland from Long Beach, thirty miles north of Little Egg Harbor and present-day Atlantic City, NJ.
[18] Cedar Bridge Tavern was built in 1740. Present day historical site tavern was constructed on the same spot in 1816. It is reported to be the oldest surviving tavern in New Jersey.
[19] No written accounts give the date the militia departed for Manahawkin. Stating simply, it was immediately after they received word of Bacon’s whereabouts.
[20] Colonel Israel Shreve wrote Gov. Livingston afterwards that his party, Capt. Richard Shreve commanding, consisted of six horsemen and twenty foot; there was no mention of Thomas’ force. Colonel Israel Shreve was brother to Capt. Richard Shreve. He had led New Jersey’s 2nd Continental Regiment through the war, participating in most of the northern battles. He left the service in 1781 to return home and joined the militia under his brother to chase down Bacon.
[21] Colonel Isreal Shreve led the 2nd NJ Continental Regiment during the war, leaving in 1781 to return home. He accompanied his brother Captain Richard Shreve of the Burlington Militia during the pursuit of Bacon.
[22] This in a letter to NJ Governor Livingston.
[23] As recorded in the Journal and Gazette, January, 1783.
[24] Adelberg, Monmouth County Historical Society.
[25] As recorded in the Journal and Gazette.
[26] Adelberg, Monmouth County Historical Society.
[27] NJ Journal and Gazette.
[28] Adelberg.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid.
[32] On-line institute for advanced loyalist studies.
[33] Manning.
[34] Hart.
[35] Adelberg.